1。SeethecaseofHyltonv。TheUnitedStates，3dDall。171。
2。Gibbonsv。Ogden，9thWheaton，p。1，&；c。
3。See7Coke\'sRep。7。
4。7Coke\'sRep。6。
5。SeeWooddeson，vol。i。232，andmanyoftheBritishtreatiesevincethetruthofhisposition。In1783，thecessionsofTobago，EastFlorida，&；c。；thenumeroustransfersamongtheEuropeanmonarchssincetheyear1795，formstrikinginstancesofthegeneraladoptionoftheprinciple。Timeindeedissometimesallowedtothepeopletowithdrawthemselvesandtheirproperty，butageorothercausesmayrenderthisimpossible。InGreatBritainsuchtreatiesareoftenconfirmedbyactsofparliament，buttheprincipleisthesame。Theircoloniesarenotrepresentedinparliament。
6。Thewordsofthelawarethese:?
Whensoeveranycitizenofthiscommonwealthshallbydeedinwritingunderhishandandseal，executedinthepresenceofandsubscribedbythreewitnesses，andbythemortwoofthemprovedinthegeneralcourt，anydistrictcourt，orthecourtofthecountyorcorporationwhereheresides，orbyopenverbaldeclarationmadeineitherofsaidcourtstobebythementeredofrecord，declarethatherelinquishesthecharacterofacitizen，andshalldepartoutofthiscommonwealth，suchpersonshallfromthetimeofhisdeparturebeconsideredashavingexercisedhisrightofexpatriationandshallthenceforthbedeemednocitizen。\"?Passed23dDecember，1792。
7。3Dallas，133。TheauthorapprehendsthatnoprinciplecanbemoreclearthanthatastatecannotdischargeacitizenfromhisallegiancetotheUnitedstates。
8。UnitedStatesv。Williams，4Hall\'sLawJournal，401。
9。UnitedStatesv。Gillies，I
Peters120?See2Cranch，126。
DuringthelatewarPresidentMadisondirectedoneClark，acitizenoftheUnitedStateswhohadremovedtoCanada，andwasafterwardstakenwithinourlinesandsentencedtodeathbyacourtmartialasaspy?tobedeliveredtothecivilauthority，therebydisclaimingmilitarypoweroverhimasanalienenemy。
10。IsaacWilliams，whosecasehasbeennoticed，expresslyrenouncedhisallegiancetothiscountrywhenhewasnaturalizedinFrance。Intheopinionofthechiefjustice，thiscircumstancemadenodifference。
11。ThelegislatureofPennsylvaniaonthe29thofMarch，1783，expungedfromtheoath，thepartwhichrequiredarenunciationofallegiancetotheKingofGreatBritain，declaringthatitwaswhollyuseless。
12。Itisproper，however，toobserve，thatacontraryopinionhasbeengiveninthestateofNewYorkbyajudgeofgreatlearningandacuteness，Washburn\'scase，4Johnson，Ch。
106，towhichisopposedthelaterdecisionofamanofequalcharacterandtalent，ChiefJusticeTilghmaninthecaseofEdwardShortonahabeascorpus，Aug。20，1824。
13。4Wheaton，122。
14。ibid。200。
15。§；10。
16。Coke\'sInst。vol。iii。181。
17。8Ann。c。19。15Geo。3。c。53。
18。4Burrow，2417。
19。5Wheaton，151，417。
20。1Gallison，124。5Wheaton，204，206。
21。4Dallas，37。
22。InEngland，theRoyalPalace，withanextentoftwelvemilesroundit，hasapeculiarjurisdictioninregardtosomelegalcontroversies；butanysuitsbroughtintheMarshalseaorPalaceCourts，(astheyarestyled，)maybe，andnowgenerallyare，removedatoncetotheKing\'sBenchorCommonPleas。Forallthepurposesoflegislation，thereisnodistinctionbetweenthe\"vergeofthecourt，\"andthekingdomatlarge。
23。2Cranch，452。
WilliamRawle:AViewoftheConstitution:ChapterXCHAPTERX。OFTHERESTRICTIONSONTHEPOWERSOFCONGRESS?ANDONTHEEXECUTIVEAND
JUDICIALAUTHORITIES?RESTRICTIONSONTHEPOWERSOFSTATESANDSECURITY
TOTHERIGHTSOFINDIVIDUALS。THErestrictionsonthepowersofcongresscontainedintheoriginaltextarefew。Thegeneralprincipleonwhichitisconstructedbeingdeclaredandmanifestthroughout，itfollowsthattonopurposeinconsistentwithorextendingbeyondthatprinciple，canitspoweroflegislationbecarried。Yetitwasexpedientinsomeinstancestointroducepositiveexceptions；insome，toqualifypowersenumeratedorimplied，andinotherstosecurebyexplicitdeclarationsboththerepublicanfoundationandtheequalityofthestatesinallpointswithinthesphereofthegeneralgovernment。
Thefirstclassoftheserestrictionsrelatestocommerce。
Notaxordutyshallbelaidonarticlesexportedfromanystate。
Ithasbeenrepeatedlyobserved，thattheleadingprincipleofthewholeConstitutionisuniformityinrespecttotheseveralstates，asfarasitcanbeobtained。Thenaturalorartificialproductsofstatesaredifferent?tolayageneraldutyontheexportsofriceorcotton，ortobacco，wouldaffectonlythesouthernstates；onflourorgrain，principallythecentralstates，andonthedomesticmanufactureswouldoperatechieflyonthenorthernandeasternstatesengagedinthem-yetwithoutthisrestrictionperhapsitmighthavebeendone。
Arestrictionbothastoexportsandimportsissubsequentlyextendedtothestatesthemselves，exceptwhatmaybeabsolutelynecessarytoexecutetheirowninspectionlaws；and，topreventevasionundercolourofonlysecuringtherightofinspection，itisprovidedthatthenetproduceofalldutiesandimpostslaidbyanystateonimportsorexports，shallbefortheuseofthetreasuryoftheUnitedStates，andthatallsuchlawsshallbesubjecttotherevisionandcontrolofcongress。
Onthesameprincipleitisprovidedingeneralterms，thatnopreferenceshallbegivenbyanyregulationsofcommerceorrevenuetotheportsofonestateoverthoseofanother，norshallvesselsboundfromonestatebeobligedtoenter，clear，orpaydutiesinanother。AvesselboundtoorfromPhiladelphia，shallnotbeobligedtoenterorpaydutiesinthestateofDelawareorNewJersey。Itisnothoweverprobablethatcongress，althoughunrestrained，wouldmakesuchregulations。
Thesearealltherestrictionsimmediatelyrelatingtocommerce，butoneofsomeimportancewasomitted。Thedangerofintroducingcontagiousdiseases，hassuggestedtocommercialcountriestheproprietyofinterposingtheutmostcareinregardtotheadmissionofvesselsfromsuspectedplaces。
IntheMediterranean，whereonaccountofthefrequencyoftheplague，thepracticebegan，itwasrequiredthatsuchvesselsshouldrideatanchorfortydayswithoutintercoursewiththeshore。Hencethetermquarantinehasbeenintroduced，althoughthelimitationoftimeisvariedaccordingtocircumstances。Thestateorportatwhichthevesselimmediatelyarrivesbeingthefirstindanger，hasthegreatestinterestintakingproperprecautionsaccordingtoitssituationsandmeansofenforcingthem。ButtheutilityofsuchprecautionsescapednoticeinframingtheConstitution；andCongress，withafairconstructionofitsimpliedpowers，hasmadesuitableprovisionstoenablethestatestoprotectthehealthoftheirinhabitants，althoughbysodoing，theymay，insomedegree，beconsideredaspartakingofthepowertoregulatecommerce。
Animportantclausewithwhichthissectioncommences，ispartlyofacommercial，andpartlyofapoliticalandmoralkind。Itwasforeseen，thatthegeneralpowertoregulatecommercewouldincludeatrafficnowjustlyreprobatedbymostChristiannations，butsomeinterestsandopinionsweretoberespected，andwhilethepowertoabolishtheslavetradeentirelywasindirectlyconceded，theexerciseofittilltheyear1808，otherwisethanbylayingataxordutyoftendollarsoneachpersonimported，wasprohibited。Congressdidnotfailtoavailitselfofthepower，assoonasitbecamelawfultoexecuteit。
Therestrictionsinregardtotaxationandpublicmoneyshavealreadybeenmentioned。
Reasonswillbegivenhereafterforconsideringmanyoftherestrictions，containedintheamendmentstotheConstitution，asextendingtothestatesaswellastotheUnitedStates，butthenatureofthewritofhabeascorpusseemspeculiarlytocallforthisconstruction。Itisthegreatremedyofthecitizenorsubjectagainstarbitraryorillegalimprisonment；
itisthemodebywhichthejudicialpowerspeedilyandeffectuallyprotectsthepersonallibertyofeveryindividual，andrepelstheinjusticeofunconstitutionallawsordespoticgovernors。Aftererectingthedistinctgovernmentwhichweareconsidering，andafterdeclaringwhatshouldconstitutethesupremelawineverystateintheUnion，fearfulmindsmightentertainjealousiesofthisgreatandall-controllingpower，ifsomeprotectionagainstitsenergieswhenmisdirected，wasnotprovidedbyitself。
Thenationalcodeinwhichthewritofhabeascorpuswasoriginallyfound，isnotexpresslyordirectlyincorporatedintotheConstitution。
Ifthisprovisionbadbeenomitted，theexistingpowersunderthestategovernments，noneofwhomarewithoutit，mightbequestioned，andapersonimprisonedonamandateofthepresidentorotherofficer，undercolouroflawfulauthorityderivedfromtheUnitedStates，mightbedeniedrelief。
Butthejudicialauthority，whethervestedinastatejudge，orajudgeoftheUnitedStates，isanintegralandidentifiedcapacity；andifcongressnevermadeanyprovisionforissuingwritsofhabeascorpus，eitherthestatejudgesmustissuethem，ortheindividualbewithoutredress。
TheConstitutionseemstohavesecuredthisbenefittothecitizenbythedescriptionofthewrit，andinanunqualifiedmanneradmittingitsefficacy，whileitdeclaresthatitshallnothesuspendedunlesswhen，incaseofrebellionorinvasion，thepublicsafetyshallrequireit。Thiswritisbelievedtobeknownonlyincountriesgovernedbythecommonlaw，asitisestablishedinEngland；butinthatcountrythebenefitofitmayatanytimebewithheldbytheauthorityofparliament，whereasweseethatinthiscountryitcannotbesuspendedevenincasesofrebellionorinvasion，unlessthepublicsafetyshallrequireit。OfthisnecessitytheConstitutionprobablyintends，thatthelegislatureoftheUnitedStatesshallbethejudges。ChargedastheyarewiththepreservationoftheUnitedStatesfromboththoseevils，andsupersedingthepowersoftheseveralstatesintheprosecutionofthemeasurestheymayfinditexpedienttoadopt，itseemsnotunreasonablethatthiscontroloverthewritofhabeascorpus，whichoughtonlytobeexercisedonextraordinaryoccasions，shouldrestwiththem。Itisatanyratecertain，thatcongress，whichhasauthorizedthecourtsandjudgesoftheUnitedStatestoissuewritsofhabeascorpusincaseswithintheirjurisdiction，canalonesuspendtheirpower，andthatnostatecanpreventthosecourtsandjudgesfromexercisingtheirregularfunctions，whichare，however，confinedtocasesofimprisonmentprofessedtobeundertheauthorityoftheUnitedStates。
Butthestatecourtsandjudgespossesstherightofdeterminingonthelegalityofimprisonmentundereitherauthority。1
Nobillofattainder，norexpostfactolawshallbepassed。
Billsofattainderarethosebywhichapersonwithoutajudicialtrial，isdeclaredbythelegislaturetobeguiltyofsomeparticularcrime。Thedefinitionitselfshowstheatrocityoftheact。Suchlawsareneverpassedbutintimesofwildcommotionorarbitrarymisrule。
Expostfactolawsareoftensupposedtosignifyalllawshavingaretrospectiveoperation，butthetechnicalmeaningofthemismoreconfined。
Anexpostfactolawiswhenanactionisdeclaredtobeacrime，whichatthetimeitwasdonewasinnocent，orwhenitaggravatesacrime，anddeclaresittobegreaterthanitwaswhencommitted，orwhenitincreasesthepunishment，ordirectsthatdifferentorlessevidenceshallbesufficienttoconvicttheoffender；butifitsoftenstherigouroftheancientlaw，itisnotwithintheprohibition。2TheConstitutiondoesnotpreventcongressfrompassingretrospectivelawsincivilcases。Whythiswasomittedwhenthestatesinthesameinstrumentarerestrainedfrompassinglawsimpairingtheobligationsofcontracts，willbehereafterexplained。
Notitleofnobility，shallbegrantedbytheUnitedStates，orbyanyindividualstate。Ofthistherecouldhavebeenbutlittledanger。
Theindependentspiritofrepublicansleadsthemtocontemnthevanityofhereditarydistinctions，buttheresidueoftheclauseismoreimportant。NopersonholdinganyofficeoftrustorprofitundertheUnitedStatesshall，withouttheconsentofcongress，acceptofanypresent，emolument，office，ortitleofanykindwhatever，fromanyking，prince，orforeignstate。
Therecannotbetoomuchjealousyinrespecttoforeigninfluence。ThetreasuresofPersiaweresuccessfullydistributedinAthens；anditisnowknownthatinEnglandaprofligateprinceandmanyofhisvenalcourtierswerebribedintomeasuresinjurioustothenationbythegoldofLouisXIV。3
Asalutaryamendment，extendingtheprohibitiontoallcitizensoftheUnitedStates，anddisfranchisingthosewhoinfringeit，hasbeenadoptedbysomeofthestates；butnotyetbyasufficientnumber。Theclauseinthetextisdefectiveinnotprovidingaspecificpenaltyforabreachofit。Disfranchisement，oradeprivationofalltherightsofacitizen，seemsthemostappropriatepunishmentthatcouldbeapplied，sinceitrenderstheseductionuselesstothosewhoweretheauthorsofit，anddisgracefultothepersonseduced。
Oftheamendmentsalreadyadopted，(forwhichseetheappendix，)theeightfirstinorderfallwithintheclassofrestrictionsonthelegislativepower，someofwhichwouldhavebeenimplied，someareoriginal，andallarehighlyvaluable。Somearealsotobeconsideredasrestrictionsonthejudicialpower。
Theconstitutionsofsomeofthestatescontainbillsofrights；othersdonot。Adeclarationofrights，therefore，properlyfindsaplaceinthegeneralConstitution，whereitequalizesallandbindsall。
Eachstateisobliged，whileitremainsamemberoftheUnion，topreservetherepublicanformofgovernmentinallitsstrengthandpurity。Thepeopleofeachstate，bytheamendedconstitution，pledgethemselvestoeachotherforthesacredpreservationofcertaindetailedprinciples，withoutwhichtherepublicanformwouldbeimpureandweak。
Theywillnowbeviewedinsuccession。
Thefirstamendmentprohibitscongressfrompassinganylawrespectinganestablishmentofreligion，orpreventingthefreeexerciseofit。
ItwouldbedifficulttoconceiveonwhatpossibleconstructionoftheConstitutionsuchapowercouldeverbeclaimedbycongress。Thetimehaslongpassedbywhenenlightenedmeninthiscountryentertainedtheopinionthatthegeneralwelfareofanationcouldbepromotedbyreligiousintolerance，andundernootherclausecouldapretenceforitbefound。
Individualstateswhoselegislaturesarenotrestrainedbytheirownconstitutions，havebeenoccasionallyfoundtomakesomedistinctions；butwhenweadverttothosepartsoftheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates，whichsostronglyenforcetheequalityofallourcitizens，wemayreasonablydoubtwhetherthedenialofthesmallestcivicrightunderthispretencecanbereconciledtoit。InmostofthegovernmentsofEurope，someonereligioussystemenjoysapreference，enforcedwithmoreorlessseverity，accordingtocircumstances。Opinionsandmodesofworshipdifferingfromthosewhichformtheestablishedreligion，aresometimesexpresslyforbidden，sometimespunished，andinthemildestcases，onlytoleratedwithoutpatronageorencouragement。ThusahumangovernmentinterposesbetweentheCreatorandhiscreature，interceptsthedevotionofthelatter，orcondescendstopermititonlyunderpoliticalregulations。Frominjusticesogross，andimpietysomanifest，multitudessoughtanasyluminAmerica，andhencesheoughttobethehospitableandbenignreceiverofeveryvarietyofreligiousopinion。Itistrue，thatinherearlyprovincialstage，theequalityofthoserightsdoesnotseemtohavebeenuniversallyadmitted。
Thosewhoclaimedreligiousfreedomforthemselves，didnotimmediatelyperceivethatotherswerealsoentitledtoit；butthehistoryofthesternexclusionorreluctantadmissionofothersectsinseveraloftheprovinces，wouldbeanimproperdigressioninthiswork。Intracingtheannalsofsomeoftheprovinces，itispleasingtoobservethatintheveryoutset，theirenlightenedfounderspubliclyrecognisedtheperfectfreedomofconscience。
Therewasindeedsometimesaninconsistency，perhapsnotadvertedtointheocclusionofpublicofficestoallbutChristians，whichwasthecaseinPennsylvania，butitwasthenoflittlepracticalimportance。Intheconstitutionadoptedbythatstatein1776，thesameinconsistency，thoughexpressedinlanguagesomewhatdifferent，wasretained，butinherpresentconstitution，nothingabridges，nothingqualifies，nothingdefeats，thefulleffectoftheoriginaldeclaration。Boththeelectorandtheelectedareentitled，whatevertheirreligioustenetsmaybe，tothefullestenjoymentofpoliticalrights，providedinthelatterdescription，thepartypubliclydeclareshisbeliefinthebeingofaGod，andafuturestateofrewardsandpunishments。Thisqualificationisnotexpresslyrequiredofanelector，andperhapswasintroducedinrespecttothoseelected，chieflyforthepurposeofmoreparticularlyexplainingthesenseofaprecedingsection。
Itisindeedtosuchadegreedoubtfulwhetheranycanbefoundsoweakanddepravedastodisbelievethesecardinalpointsofallreligions，thatitcanscarcelybesupposedtohavebeenintroducedforanyotherpurpose。4
Justandliberalprinciplesonthissubject，throwalustreroundtheConstitutioninwhichtheyarefound，andwhiletheydignifythenation，promoteitsinternalpeaceandharmony。Nopredominantreligionoverpowersanother，thevotariesofwhicharefewandhumble；nolordlyhierarchyexcitesodiumorterror；legalpersecutionisunknown，andfreedomofdiscussion，whileittendstopromotetheknowledge，contributestoincreasethefervourofpiety。
Thefreedomofspeechandofthepressformspartofthesamearticle，andinpartrelatestothesamesubject；itembracesallmattersofreligious，moral，political，orphysicaldiscussion。Tacitus，ingloomymeditationontheimperialdespotismofRome，exclaims，\"Howrarearethosehappytimeswhenmenmaythinkwhattheypleaseandsaywhattheythink。\"Underthedenialofsuchrights，lifeisindeedoflittlevalue。Thefoundationofafreegovernmentbeginstobeunderminedwhenfreedomofspeechonpoliticalsubjectsisrestrained；itisdestroyedwhenfreedomofspeechiswhollydenied。Thepressisavehicleofthefreedomofspeech。Theartofprintingilluminatestheworld，byarapiddisseminationofwhatwouldotherwisebeslowlycommunicatedandpartiallyunderstood。Thismayeasilybeconceived，ifweweretofiguretoourselvesthetotalsuppressionofprintingforevenashorttimeinthiscountry。
Ournewspapersarenowmorenumerousthansuchpublicationsareinanequalamountofpopulationinanyotherpartoftheworld。Whereveranewsettlementisformed，andeveryyearpresentsmanysuch，aprintingpressisestablishedassoonasasufficientnumberofinhabitantsiscollected。Informationisthemoralfood，forwhichtheactiveAmericanintellecteverhungers。
Butthelibertyofspeechandofthepressmaybeabused，andsomayeveryhumaninstitution。Itisnot，however，tobesupposedthatitmaybeabusedwithimpunity。Remedieswillalwaysbefoundwhiletheprotectionofindividualrightsandthereasonablesafeguardsofsocietyitselfformpartsoftheprinciplesofourgovernment。Aprevioussuperintendencyofthepress，anarbitrarypowertodirectorprohibititspublicationsarewithheld，butthepunishmentofdangerousoroffensivepublications，whichonafairandimpartialtrialarefoundtohaveapernicioustendency，isnecessaryforthepeaceandorderofgovernmentandreligion，whicharethesolidfoundationsofcivilliberty。
Therightofthepeoplepeaceablytoassembleandpetitiongovernmentforaredressofgrievancesconcludesthearticle。
Ofthisrightintheabstracttherecannotbeadoubt。Towithholdfromtheinjured，theprivilegeofcomplaint，andtodebartherulersfromthebenefitofinformationthatmayapprizethemoftheirerrors，ismutuallyunjust。Itmay，however，beurged，thathistoryshowshowthosemeetingsandpetitionshavebeenabused，andwemaybeturnedtoanEnglishstatute，which，thoughillobserved，issaidtobestillinforce，5andwhichisunderstoodtohavebeenfoundedonthemischiefsanddisordersexperiencedfromlargeandtumultuousassemblies，presentingpetitionsfortheredressofgrievancesinthereignofCharlesI。Butbesidesthewellknownirrelevancyoftheargumentfromtheabuseofanythingagainstitsuse，wemustrememberthatbyrequiringtheassemblytobepeaceable，theusualremediesofthelawareretained，iftherightisillegallyexercised。
Theprecedingarticleexpresslyreferstothepowersofcongressalone，butsomeofthosewhichfollowaretobemoregenerallyconstrued，andconsideredasapplyingtothestatelegislaturesaswellasthatoftheUnion。Theimportantprinciplescontainedinthemarenowincorporatedbyadoptionintotheinstrumentitself；theyformpartsofthedeclaredrightsofthepeople，ofwhichneitherthestatepowersnorthoseoftheUnioncaneverdeprivethem。
Asubsequentarticledeclares，thatthepowersnotdelegatedtocongressbytheConstitution，norprohibitedbyittothestates，arereservedtothestatesrespectively，ortothepeople。Whatweareabouttoconsiderarecertainlynotdelegatedtocongress，noraretheynoticedintheprohibitionstostates；theyarethereforereservedeithertothestatesortothepeople。
Theirhighnature，theirnecessitytothegeneralsecurityandhappinesswillbedistinctlyperceived。
Inthesecondarticle，itisdeclared，thatawellregulatedMilitiaisnecessarytothesecurityofafreestate；apropositionfromwhichfewwilldissent。Althoughinactualwar，theservicesofregulartroopsareconfessedlymorevaluable；yet，whilepeaceprevails，andinthecommencementofawarbeforearegularforcecanberaised，themilitiaformthepalladiumofthecountry。Theyarereadytorepelinvasion，tosuppressinsurrection，andpreservethegoodorderandpeaceofgovernment。Thattheyshouldbewellregulated，isjudiciouslyadded。Adisorderlymilitiaisdisgracefultoitself，anddangerousnottotheenemy，buttoitsowncountry。Thedutyofthestategovernmentis，toadoptsuchregulationsaswilltendtomakegoodsoldierswiththeleastinterruptionsoftheordinaryandusefuloccupationsofcivillife。InthisalltheUnionhasastrongandvisibleinterest。
Thecorollary，fromthefirstposition，is，thattherightofthepeopletokeepandbeararmsshallnotbeinfringed。
Theprohibitionisgeneral。NoclauseintheConstitutioncouldbyanyruleofconstructionbeconceivedtogivetocongressapowertodisarmthepeople。Suchaflagitiousattemptcouldonlybemadeundersomegeneralpretencebyastatelegislature。Butifinanyblindpursuitofinordinatepower，eithershouldattemptit，thisamendmentmaybeappealedtoasarestraintonboth。
InmostofthecountriesofEurope，thisrightdoesnotseemtobedenied，althoughitisallowedmore，orlesssparingly，accordingtocircumstances。
InEngland，acountrywhichboastssomuchofitsfreedom，therightwassecuredtoProtestantsubjectsonly，ontherevolutionof1688；anditiscautiouslydescribedtobethatofbearingarmsfortheirdefence，\"suitabletotheirconditions，andasallowedbylaw。\"6Anarbitrarycodeforthepreservationofgameinthatcountryhaslongdisgracedthem。Averysmallproportionofthepeoplebeingpermittedtokillit，thoughfortheirownsubsistence；agunorotherinstrument，usedforthatpurposebyanunqualifiedperson，maybeseizedandforfeited。
Blackstone，inwhomweregretthatwecannotalwaystracetheexpandedprinciplesofrationalliberty，observeshowever，onthissubject，thatthepreventionofpopularinsurrectionsandresistancetogovernmentbydisarmingthepeople，isoftenermeantthanavowed，bythemakersofforestandgamelaws。7
Thisrightoughtnot，however，inanygovernment，tobeabusedtothedisturbanceofthepublicpeace。
Anassemblageofpersonswitharms，foranunlawfulpurpose，isanindictableoffence，andeventhecarryingofarmsabroadbyasingle，individual，attendedwithcircumstancesgivingjustreasontofearthathepurposestomakeanunlawfuluseofthem，wouldbesufficientcausetorequirehimtogivesuretyofthepeace。Ifherefusedhewouldbeliabletoimprisonments。8
Nosoldiershallintimeofpeacebequarteredinanyhousewithouttheconsentoftheowner，(heretherestrictionisgeneral，)norintimeofwar，butinamannertobeprescribedbylaw；andthismustbeconstruedalawoftheUnitedStateswhenthewarisgeneral，orofthestatewhenintheauthorizedexerciseoftherightofself-defenceonthesuddenemergenciesadvertedtointheConstitution，immediatestateoperationshavebecomenecessary。Intheformercase，thesoleconductofthewarisgiventothegeneralgovernment，anditoughtnottobedependenton，orcontrolledbythestategovernmentsinitsmodesofproceeding。
Inthelatter，thestate，relyingonitsownenergies，isentitledtothebenefitofthesameprinciple。Thepracticewouldbeneedlesslyburthensometothepeopleintimeofpeace，andbyagovernmenthavingimproperviews，itmightberenderedanindirectandodiousmeanofcompellingsubmissiontoimpropermeasures。Duringawar，whenitbecomesnecessarytogarrisonatown，orstationabodyoftroopsforatimeinaparticularplace，thecommoninterestwillnaturallysupersedeminorobjections。
Bythegeneraltermsoldier，wearetounderstandas，wellthemilitiainactualserviceasregulartroops。
Thefollowingarticledeclares，thattherightofthepeopletobesecureintheirhouses，papers，andeffects，againstunreasonablesearchesandseizures，shallnotbeviolated，andnowarrantsshallissuebutuponprobablecause，supportedbyoathoraffirmation，particularlydescribingtheplacetobesearched，andthepersonsorthingstobeseized。
Hereagainwefindthegeneraltermswhichprohibitallviolationsofthesepersonalrights，andofcourseextendbothtothestateandtheUnitedStates。
Thetermunreasonableisusedtoindicatethatthesanctionofalegalwarrantistobeobtained，beforesuchsearchesorseizuresaremade，butwhenuponprobablecause，supportedbyoathoraffirmation，suchawarrantisissued，notonlymayothereffects，butthepapersoftheaccusedbetakenintothecustodyofthelaw。
Thefollowingpartofthe6tharticlehasmoreimmediatereferencetothejudicialproceedingsoftheUnitedStates，andmaythereforebeconsideredasrestraintsonlyonthelegislationoftheUnitedStates。
Inallcriminalprosecutions，theaccusedshallenjoytherightofaspeedyandpublictrialbyanimpartialjuryofthestateanddistrictwhereinthecrimeshallhavebeencommitted，whichdistrictshallhavebeenpreviouslyascertainedbylaw。Forthebetterunderstandingofthisprovision，itispropertoexplainthatithadalreadybeenprovidedintheConstitution，9thatthetrialsofoffencesshouldbehadinthestatewheretheywerecommitted；
but，inorganizingthejudiciarysystem，ithadappearedtocongresspropertoformjudicialdistricts，anditwasfoundinconvenienttomakethemalwayscommensuratewiththeboundariesofstates。ThustwodistrictsbadbeenformedoutofthestateofMassachusetts，andtwooutofVirginia。10Byvirtueofthisamendment，anoffencecommittedinthatpartofMassachusettswhichlayeastwardofNewHampshirecouldonlybetriedinthedistrictofMaine。Itisawiseandmercifulmeasure。ItwouldhavebeenhighlyoppressivetocarryamailfromNorfolk，inVirginia，totakehistrialatHarrodsburginKentucky。
Anotherpartofthesixtharticleiscalculatedtosecuretotheaccusedaprotectionwhich，tothosefamiliaronlywiththehabitsofthiscountry，wouldappearsuperfluous。Theaccusedistobeinformedofthenatureandcauseoftheaccusation，tobeconfrontedwiththewitnessesagainsthim；tohavecompulsoryprocessforobtainingwitnessesinhisfavour，andtohavetheassistanceofcounselinhisdefence。
Itseemsmonstrousthatinanycountrythetestimonyonwhichapersonmightbeconvictedshouldbetakeninhisabsence。Yetitiscertain，thatinsomeplaces，thetestimonyonwhichapersonmightbeconvictedofthegreatestcrimeswasoftentakenwithouthisbeingpresent，sometimesevenwithouthisknowingwhothewitnesseswere。Theevidencethuscollectedwasembodiedintheaccusation，andhewasrequiredtodefendhimselfagainstinvisibleenemies。Thisseverityhasindeedbeenmitigatedinmoderntimes，butitisbelievedtobenotyettotallyabolished。
Apersonaccusedoughttohavealltheaidofthelawtohisdefence；
thoseonwhosetestimonyhemustrely，may，fromintimidationorcorruption，beunwillingtoassisthim。Thepublicisconsideredasalwayshavingitintheirpowertocompeltheappearanceofwitnessesagainsthim。Itisjustthatheshouldbearmedinthelikemanner。Nojudgecannowrefusetoissueprocessagainstthosewhomtheaccusedshallnominatetohim?
andtocompelthem，toenterintorecognizancetoappearandtestifyonthetrial。Circumstancesmayevenrenderitnecessarythatheshouldgofurther。Ifthereisaprobabilitythatthewitnesswillleavethestateordistrictbeforethetrialcomeson，itseemstobetherightoftheaccusedtodemandsecurityforhisappearance。
Butwithallthesehumaneprovisions，somethingmoreiswanting。Themostinnocentman，pressedbytheawfulsolemnitiesofapublicaccusationandtrial，maybeincapableofsupportinghisowncause。Hemaybeutterlyunfittocross-examinethewitnessesagainsthim，topointoutthedefectsoftheirtestimony，andtocounteractitbyproperlyintroducingandapplyinghisown。Hencetheimportance，wemightsay，theright，ofhavingtheaidofmeneducatedandaccustomedtomanagecriminaltrials，towhose，knowledgeandskillbemaysafelycommittheconductofhisdefence。Willitbebelieved，that，evenatthisday，inEngland，apersonindictedofanycapitalcrime(unlessinthecaseofhightreasonbyexpressstatute)isnotallowedthebenefitofcounsel，excepttoaddressthejudgeonaquestionoflaw?
Thoseobservationsonthefactsofthecase，which，inthehandsofableandexperiencedadvocates，mightsecuretheacquittalofaninnocentman，arewhollyprohibited。Thetremblingprisonermaymakeafruitlessefforthimself，andhefrequentlyhastheconsolationtobetold，thatthecourtishiscounsel，andwillcalltheattentionofthejurytowhatevermayoperateinhisfavour。Anemptyfiction，whichoftendeludeshimwhoreliesonit。Twobenevolenteffortshaverecentlybeenmadeinthehouseofcommonstoprocurethisrighttosuchdefendants，but，beingopposedbythewholeforceoftheministerialparty，theybothfailed。
Theprotectionoftheindividualagainstallunnecessaryseverityintheprosecutionofjustice，characterizesthegreatestpartofthefifth，andthewholeoftheeighthamendment。
Thelatterdeclares，thatexcessivebailshallnotberequired，norexcessivefinesimposed，norcruelandunusualpunishmentsinflicted。
DuringthearbitraryreignsoftheStuartsinBritain，particularlyofthetwolast，onefrequentmodeofoppressingthosewhowereobnoxioustothecourt，wastocausecriminalproceedingstobeinstitutedagainstthem，todemandbailinextravagantsums，andontheirfallingtoprocureit，tocommitthemtoprison。
Whentherevolutiontookplace，amongotherprovisionsdemandedbythepeople，andreadilyassentedtobyWilliamIII。wastheclausewhichhasbeentranscribedintothisamendment。Ifexcessivebailisdemandedbyonemagistrate，anothermaymoderateitonahabeascorpus，issuedtothekeeperoftheprisoninwhosecustodythepartyis。Thispowerisnot，however，tobeabused，byreducing，thebailbelowareasonablesum。
Insuchacase，thelattermagistratewouldhimselfbeliabletoafine，ifthecriminalshouldnotappearattheappointedtime。
Excessivefinesconstituteonemodeofinflictingcruelpunishments。
Thisrestrictionappliesequallytothelegislativeandtothejudicialauthority。Inrespecttotheformer，however，itisrathertobeconsideredinthelightofarecommendationthanasaconditiononwhichtheconstitutionalityofthelawdepends。Thejudicialauthoritywouldnotundertaketopronouncealawvoid，becausethefineitimposedappearedtothemexcessive；and，therefore，ifthelegislatureshouldcommit，andpersistin，grosserrorsinthisrespect，theultimateremedymustbesoughtamongthechecksonthelegislativepower，whichwillhereafterbebroughtintoview。
Theprohibitionofunusualpunishmentsappliesalike，underthequalificationsalreadynoticed，tothelegislativeandtothejudicialpower。
Thelawsofafreecountryseldomleavethesortofpunishmenttobeinflictedtothediscretionofthejudge，althoughthemeasureorextentofit，asforinstancethequantumofalimitedfine，orthedurationofatermofimprisonment，which，bythelawisnottobeexceeded，isoftensubmittedtohim。Thepeculiarcircumstancesofeachcase，thecontritionorgeneralgoodcharacteroftheoffender，maysuggestandjustifyamoderationofthefullextentofthepunishment。Butalawwhichsubjectsanoffendertoanysortofpunishment，isunknowntoourcivilcode。Ifthelawissilentinrespecttothemodeofpunishmentwhichissometimesthecasewhenanactisprohibitedingeneralterms，withoutsayingmore，thecourtisunderstoodtobeconfinedtotheusualmoderatepunishmentoffineandimprisonment，oroneofthem。Ifafinealoneisimposed，imprisonmentmaybeanadjunct，toenforcethepaymentofit。
Theobligationonthelegislaturenottopasslawsinflictingunusualpunishmentsmustbeconsideredassubjecttosomequalification。Theestablishedformsofpunishmentmayhaveprovedineffectualtopreventthecommissionofsomekindsofoffences。Wemayinstancethepracticeofduelling，anoffenceagainstGodandsociety，whichnolawhasyetbeenfoundsufficienttoprevent。ItwouldbenoviolationoftheConstitutionifcongress，withinthesphereoftheirseparatelegislation，couldbytheinventionofsomenewpunishment，strikingatthefalsehonourwhichleadsfollytothefield，putanendtoacustomsoinhumanandabsurd。
Atcommonlawtherearetwomodesofinstitutingprosecutions；oneofwhichisbyaninformationfiledbytheofficerwhorepresentsthepublic，onhisownjudgmentanddiscretion，which，ifunadvisedlyorcorruptlydone，maysubjecttheindividualtocauselesstroubleandexpense。Theotherisbyanindictmentwhichispreparedbythesameofficer，andsenttoagrandjury，oritmaybedonebythegrandjurythemselves。Inbothofthesecases，witnessesarecarefullyexaminedonthepartofthepublic，andtheaccusedisnotputonhistrialunlessatleasttwelvegrandjurymen，ontheiroathsoraffirmations，findthatthereissufficientcauseforit。Inthefiftharticleitisexpresslydeclared，thatnoperson，exceptincasesarisinginthelandornavalforces，orinthemilitiawheninactualserviceintimeofwarorpublicdanger，shallbeheldtoanswerforacapitalorotherwiseinfamouscrime，unlessonapresentmentorindictmentofagrandjury，andinnocaseshallhebecompelledtobeawitnessagainsthimself。
Thatnooneshallbesubjectforthesameoffence，tobetwiceputinjeopardyoflifeorlimb，whichisalsoprovided，isperhapstoonarrow?noone，afterafulltrialandafairacquittal，oughttobesubjectedtoanothertrialforthesameoffence，whetheritbegreatorsmall，andsuchindeedisthesettledruleoflaw。Thepleaofaformeracquittal，isacompletebartoeverysubsequentprosecutionforthesameoffence。
Itfollowsfromalltheantecedentprecautions，thatnoonecanbedeprivedoflife，liberty，orproperty，withoutdueprocessoflaw；andtherepetitionofthisdeclaration，isonlyvaluable，asitexhibitsthesummaryofthewhole，andtheanxietythatitshouldneverbeforgotten。
Butonepartoftheclause，connectedwiththelastmentioned，requiresmoreparticularexplanation。
Insomecountrieswhenthepublicinterestmayoccasionallyrequirethatprivatepropertyshouldbeappropriatedtopublicpurposes，thesovereignmakesuseofitwithoutceremony。Inothers，itcannotbetakenfromtheindividualonanytermswithouthisownconsent。Amiddlelineisthecorrectcourse。Aperverseandobstinateman，mightotherwiseimpedeorwhollypreventmeasuresofthemostcogentnecessityforthepublicbenefit，inwhichhisownwouldbeincluded。Thepeoplebydeclaring，thatprivatepropertyshallnotbetakenforpublicuse，withoutjustcompensation，haveagreedthatinsuchcasesandonsuchtermsitmaybetaken。Ofthenecessity，thelegislatureistheonlyjudge；itdoesnotrestwiththejudicialpowertodeterminewhetherthepublicexigencewassuchastorequireit:greatinconveniencesmightensuefromtheirassumingsucharight。Forexample，aparticularpieceofgroundmightappeartothelegislature，asuitablesiteforafortintimeofdanger，andiftheyproceededinalegalmannertovesttherighttothegroundinthepublic，itwouldnotbecompetentforthejudiciarytodecide，thatabetterspotmighthavebeenchosen，orthattherewasnonecessityforanyfort。
Inthismanner，thepropertyofanindividualmaybelegallytransferredagainsthiswilltothestate，butthelegislaturehasnopowertotransferthepropertyofA。toB。althoughitmayappearmorebeneficialtothestatethatB。shouldhaveit。11Thejustcompensationspokenof，shouldbeascertainedbyajuryimpartiallyselected，andshouldbepaidinmoney，theuniversalrepresentativeandcommonstandardofvalue。12
Amongthesejustandhumaneprovisions，weobserve，thattrialbyjuryisexpresslysecuredinallprosecutionsforoffencescommittedonland。
Thosewhichmayhavebeencommittedonthehighseas，wouldproperlyfallwithintheadmiraltyjurisdiction，andmight，consistentlywithitsnature，bedecidedwithouttheinterventionofajury。Butinconferringoncongressthepowertodefineandtopunishsuchoffences，therighttodirectthemodeoftrialisgrantedasanecessaryincident。
Offencescommittedonthehighseas，beingasalreadyobserved，13withinthecognizanceofallnations，andtheoffenderliabletoprosecutionbythepowerwhichfirstapprehendshim，hemayconsequentlybesubjectedtoamodeoftrialinwhichajuryisunknown。Reasonsofgeneralpolicymaythereforepossiblysuggestthewithholdingtheabsoluterighttotrialbyjuryinsuchcases，andhence，itisomitted，notonlyintheoriginaltextbutintheamendments。Itisproperlyconfidedtocongress，whoselegislationonthesubject，may，asgoodreasonsoccasionlyarepresented，recall，abridge，ormodifythegrant。
Inrespecttocivilcontroversies，doubtsaroseinsomeofthestateconventions，whethertheoriginaltextwassufficientlyexplicit。Itdidnot，indeed，abolishtrialbyjuryinanycase，butitwasapprehendedthatapositivedeclarationinfavourofit，incivilcontroversies，alsowasexpedient。
Hencebythe7thamendment，itisprovided，thatintrialsatcommonlaw，whenthevalueincontroversyexceedstwentydollars，therightoftrialbyjuryshallbepreserved，andnofact，triedbyajuryshallbeotherwisere-examinedinanycourtoftheUnitedStates，thanaccordingtotherulesofthecommonlaw。
Bythefirstpartofit，congressisdisabledfromevertakingitaway；
andbythesecond，neitheralawcanbepassedbythem，norapracticeadoptedbythecourts，tore-examinefactstriedbyajury，otherwisethanaccordingtowellknownandlongestablishedprinciples。
Theword\"appellate，\"appliedintheoriginalinstrumenttothejurisdictionofthesupremecourt，wasbysomedeemedambiguousandinconsistentwithtechnicalphraseology；anappealisnotthemodeofre-examiningthedecisionsofcommonlawcourts，whichcanonlybedoneonawritoferror，bywhichtherecordofaninferiorcourtisbroughtbeforethesuperiorone；andnofactscanbeinquiredinto，whichdonotappearontherecord。Newtrialsmaybegranted，ifsufficientcauseisshown，bythecourtinwhichtheverdictisgiven，or，ifthejudgmentisreversedinthecourtabove，aveniredenovo，whichisadirectiontotheinferiorcourttosummonanotherjuryisissued，itthecaserequiresit，butinnoothermannercanthefactsbere-examined。Anappealistheprocessofre-examinationincourtsofadmiraltyandchanceryjurisdictionfromwhichtrialbyjuryissystematicallyexcluded，andinrespecttowhich，noalterationisintended。
Bythisveryproperamendment，allambiguityis，removed，andalldoubtissatisfied。Thereferencetothecommonlaw，precludesthenecessityoffullerdetail。Thetrialbyjuryisforeversecuredonitsancientbasis，andcannotbemultipliedbeyondit。
HereweclosethispartofourviewoftheConstitution。Intherestrictionsonthelegislativepower，weperceivetwogreatprinciples?thesecurityofthepeople\'srights，andthepreservationofthegreatnationalsystem。
Wehavenoticedthosepartswhichnecessarilyexcludetheactionofthestatesonthesamesubject；butitwillalsobepropertoadverttothoseexpressrestrictionsonthestates，whichamounttothediminutionorrelinquishmentofsomuchofthestatesovereignty，asthepeoplethoughtitexpedienttotransfertotheUnitedStates。
Nostateshallenterintoanytreaty，alliance，orconfederation，norintoanyagreementorcompactwithanotherstate，orwithaforeignpower。Ifliterallyconstrued，thisrestrictionwouldbetotalandabsolute，andyet，asbetweenstates，somecompactscertainlymaybemade。
Thuswhenalargeriverformsaboundarybetweentwostates，acompactinregardtotheexerciseofjurisdictionontheriver，orinrespecttoitsfisheries，oritsislands，wouldbelawful。Andperhapsthetrueconstructionofthisclauseis，thatpoliticalcompactsinanyformarealoneintended。
Ifastatehasreceivedaparticularinjuryfromaforeignpower，itisnottogivewaytothenaturalimpulseofgrantinglettersofmarqueandreprisal，forthiswouldinvadeanessentialattributeofthegeneralgovernment。
Thepowertocoinmoney，emitbillsofcredit，andmakeanythingbutgoldandsilveratenderinthepaymentofdebts，islikewisewithdrawnfromthem，althoughnotwithheldfromtheUnitedStates。
Therestrictionsofpassingbillsofattainderandexpostfactolaws，andgrantingtitlesofnobility，iscommontoboth，buttheexpressprohibitionofpassinglawsimpairingtheobligationofcontractsisconfinedtotheseparatestates，anditmay，asalreadynoticed，beinquiredwhyitwasnotextendedtotheUnitedStates。Beforeananswerisgiven，anexplanationofthesenseinwhichthetermcontractisheretobeexpounded，drawnfromthehighestauthority，willbeuseful。
Bycontractswearetounderstandeveryexecutedagreement，whetherbetweenindividualsorbetweenindividualsandastate，bywhicharightisvested，andeveryexecutoryagreementwhichconfersarightofaction，orcreatesabindingobligationinrelationtosubjectsofavaluablenature，suchasmaybeassertedinacourtofjustice；butitdoesnotcomprehendthepoliticalrelationsofagovernmentanditscitizens；civilinstitutionswhichmustbeliabletochangewithcircumstances，andtobemodifiedbyordinarylegislation，thosewhichdeeplyconcernthepublic，andwhichtopreservegoodgovernment，thepublicjudgmentmustcontrol。14
Theplenitudeofpowerpossessedbyastatelegislature，towhicheverythingthatisnotreservedisgranted，andthetemptationstoanerroneousexerciseofthispowerwhichsometimesoccur，renderexpressrestrictions，ifnotabsolutelynecessary，atleastveryuseful；butthelegislatureoftheUnitedStatescanhavenosuchpower，unlessitisexpresslygrantedtothem。
Asystemofbankruptcyimpairstheobligationofcontracts，whenitreleasesthepartyfromthenecessityofperformingthem；butcongressisexpresslyinvestedwiththispowerinregardtobankruptcy。Itisanenumerated，andnotanimpliedone，andinnootherform，cantheobligationofcontractsbeimpairedbythem。Asystemofbankruptcyispracticallylimitedtotwoobjects，thereliefofhonestinsolvencyandtheequaldistributionoftheremnantsofpropertyamongthecreditors。TheUnitedStatestherefore，possessnovagueandindefinitepower，thatmaybeexercisedtotheprejudiceofindividualsamongthemselves，ortheexaltationofthepublicauthorityoverprivaterights。
Theremainingrestrictionshavealreadybeengenerallynoticed，butwillherebetranscribedtoclosethesubject。
Nostateshall，withouttheconsentofthecongress，layanyimpostsordutiesonimportsorexports，exceptwhatmaybeabsolutelynecessaryforexecutingitsinspectionlaws，andthenetproduceofalldutiesandimposts，laidbyanystateonimportsorexports，shallbefortheuseofthetreasuryoftheUnitedStates，andallsuchlawsshallbesubjecttotherevisionandcontrolofthecongress。Nostateshall，withouttheconsentofcongress，layanydutyoftonnage，keeptroopsorshipsofwarintimeofpeace，orengageinwarunlessactuallyinvaded，orinsuchimminentdangeraswillnotadmitofdelay。
1。Seeamongotherinstances，thecase。
ofCommonwealthv。Smith，beforeChiefJusticeTilghman，1809。
2。3Dallas，386。Calderv。Bull。
3。SeeDalrymple\'sMemoirs，vol。2，Mazure\'slatehistoryoftheRevolutionof1688，&；c。
4。Therearenowbuttwostatesintheunionwhoseconstitutionscontainexclusiveprovisionsinregardtoreligiousopinions。InMaryland，noonewhodoesnotbelieveintheChristianreligioncanbeadmittedtoanofficeoftrustorprofit。InNorthCarolina，thesameexclusionisextendedtoallwhodenythetruthoftheProtestantreligion。Butineveryotherrespectthanthecapacitytoboldsuchoffices，allstandonthesamefootinginbothstates。
5。1Bl。143。4Bl。147。LordMansfieldontheTrialofLordGeorgeGordon。
6。1Will。&；Mary，c。2。
