第4章

Lexiconsassigntoeachwordadefinitemeaningormeanings。Theybothtendtoobscurethefactthatthesentenceprecedesthewordandthatalllanguageisrelative。（1）Itisrelativetoitsowncontext。Itsmeaningismodifiedbywhathasbeensaidbeforeandafterinthesameorinsomeotherpassage：withoutcomparingthecontextwearenotsurewhetheritisusedinthesamesenseevenintwosuccessivesentences。（2）Itisrelativetofacts，totime，place，andoccasion：whentheyarealreadyknowntothehearerorreader，theymaybepresupposed；thereisnoneedtoalludetothemfurther。（3）Itisrelativetotheknowledgeofthewriterandreaderorofthespeakerandhearer。Exceptforthesakeoforderandconsecutivenessnothingoughttobeexpressedwhichisalreadycommonlyoruniversallyknown。Awordortwomaybesufficienttogiveanintimationtoafriend；alongorelaboratespeechorcompositionisrequiredtoexplainsomenewideatoapopularaudienceortotheordinaryreaderortoayoungpupil。Grammarsanddictionariesarenottobedespised；forinteachingweneedclearnessratherthansubtlety。Butwemustnotthereforeforgetthatthereisalsoahigheridealoflanguageinwhichallisrelative——soundstosounds，wordstowords，thepartstothewhole——inwhichbesidesthelessercontextofthebookorspeech，thereisalsothelargercontextofhistoryandcircumstances。 ThestudyofComparativePhilologyhasintroducedintotheworldanewsciencewhichmorethananyotherbindsupmanwithnature，anddistantagesandcountrieswithoneanother。Itmaybesaidtohavethrownalightuponallothersciencesanduponthenatureofthehumanminditself。Thetrueconceptionofitdispelsmanyerrors，notonlyofmetaphysicsandtheology，butalsoofnaturalknowledge。Yetitisfarfromcertainthatthisnewly-foundsciencewillcontinuetoprogressinthesamesurprisingmannerasheretofore；orthatevenifourmaterialsarelargelyincreased，weshallarriveatmuchmoredefiniteconclusionsthanatpresent。Likesomeotherbranchesofknowledge，itmaybeapproachingapointatwhichitcannolongerbeprofitablystudied。Butatanyrateithasbroughtbackthephilosophyoflanguagefromtheorytofact；ithaspassedoutoftheregionofguessesandhypotheses，andhasattainedthedignityofanInductiveScience。Anditisnotwithoutpracticalandpoliticalimportance。Itgivesanewinteresttodistantandsubjectcountries；itbringsbackthedawninglightfromoneendoftheearthtotheother。 Nations，likeindividuals，arebetterunderstoodbyuswhenweknowsomethingoftheirearlylife；andwhentheyarebetterunderstoodbyus，wefeelmorekindlytowardsthem。Lastly，wemayrememberthatallknowledgeisvaluableforitsownsake；andwemayalsohopethatadeeperinsightintothenatureofhumanspeechwillgiveusagreatercommandofitandenableustomakeanobleruseofit。（CompareagainW。Humboldt，’UeberdieVerschiedenheitdesmenschlichenSprachbaues；’M。Muller，’LecturesontheScienceofLanguage；’Steinthal，’EinleitungindiePsychologieundSprachwissenschaft：’andforthelatterpartoftheEssay，Delbruck，’StudyofLanguage；’Paul’s’PrinciplesoftheHistoryofLanguage：’tothelatterworktheauthorofthisEssayislargelyindebted。） CRATYLUS byPlatoTranslatedbyBenjaminJowettPERSONSOFTHEDIALOGUE：Socrates，Hermogenes，Cratylus。 HERMOGENES：SupposethatwemakeSocratesapartytotheargument？ CRATYLUS：Ifyouplease。 HERMOGENES：Ishouldexplaintoyou，Socrates，thatourfriendCratylushasbeenarguingaboutnames；hesaysthattheyarenaturalandnotconventional；notaportionofthehumanvoicewhichmenagreetouse；butthatthereisatruthorcorrectnessinthem，whichisthesameforHellenesasforbarbarians。WhereuponIaskhim，whetherhisownnameofCratylusisatruenameornot，andheanswers’Yes。’AndSocrates？ ’Yes。’Theneveryman’sname，asItellhim，isthatwhichheiscalled。 Tothishereplies——’IfalltheworldweretocallyouHermogenes，thatwouldnotbeyourname。’AndwhenIamanxioustohaveafurtherexplanationheisironicalandmysterious，andseemstoimplythathehasanotionofhisownaboutthematter，ifhewouldonlytell，andcouldentirelyconvinceme，ifhechosetobeintelligible。Tellme，Socrates，whatthisoraclemeans；orrathertellme，ifyouwillbesogood，whatisyourownviewofthetruthorcorrectnessofnames，whichIwouldfarsoonerhear。 SOCRATES：SonofHipponicus，thereisanancientsaying，that’hardistheknowledgeofthegood。’Andtheknowledgeofnamesisagreatpartofknowledge。IfIhadnotbeenpoor，Imighthaveheardthefifty-drachmacourseofthegreatProdicus，whichisacompleteeducationingrammarandlanguage——thesearehisownwords——andthenIshouldhavebeenatonceabletoansweryourquestionaboutthecorrectnessofnames。But，indeed，I haveonlyheardthesingle-drachmacourse，andtherefore，Idonotknowthetruthaboutsuchmatters；Iwill，however，gladlyassistyouandCratylusintheinvestigationofthem。WhenhedeclaresthatyournameisnotreallyHermogenes，Isuspectthatheisonlymakingfunofyou；——hemeanstosaythatyouarenotruesonofHermes，becauseyouarealwayslookingafterafortuneandneverinluck。But，asIwassaying，thereisagooddealofdifficultyinthissortofknowledge，andthereforewehadbetterleavethequestionopenuntilwehaveheardbothsides。 HERMOGENES：Ihaveoftentalkedoverthismatter，bothwithCratylusandothers，andcannotconvincemyselfthatthereisanyprincipleofcorrectnessinnamesotherthanconventionandagreement；anynamewhichyougive，inmyopinion，istherightone，andifyouchangethatandgiveanother，thenewnameisascorrectastheold——wefrequentlychangethenamesofourslaves，andthenewly-imposednameisasgoodastheold：forthereisnonamegiventoanythingbynature；allisconventionandhabitoftheusers；——suchismyview。ButifIammistakenIshallbehappytohearandlearnofCratylus，orofanyoneelse。 SOCRATES：Idaresaythatyoumayberight，Hermogenes：letussee；——Yourmeaningis，thatthenameofeachthingisonlythatwhichanybodyagreestocallit？ HERMOGENES：Thatismynotion。 SOCRATES：Whetherthegiverofthenamebeanindividualoracity？ HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Well，now，letmetakeaninstance；——supposethatIcallamanahorseorahorseaman，youmeantosaythatamanwillberightlycalledahorsebymeindividually，andrightlycalledamanbytherestoftheworld；andahorseagainwouldberightlycalledamanbymeandahorsebytheworld：——thatisyourmeaning？ HERMOGENES：Hewould，accordingtomyview。 SOCRATES：Buthowabouttruth，then？youwouldacknowledgethatthereisinwordsatrueandafalse？ HERMOGENES：Certainly。 SOCRATES：Andtherearetrueandfalsepropositions？ HERMOGENES：Tobesure。 SOCRATES：Andatruepropositionsaysthatwhichis，andafalsepropositionsaysthatwhichisnot？ HERMOGENES：Yes；whatotheranswerispossible？ SOCRATES：Theninapropositionthereisatrueandfalse？ HERMOGENES：Certainly。 SOCRATES：Butisapropositiontrueasawholeonly，andarethepartsuntrue？ HERMOGENES：No；thepartsaretrueaswellasthewhole。 SOCRATES：Wouldyousaythelargepartsandnotthesmallerones，oreverypart？ HERMOGENES：Ishouldsaythateverypartistrue。 SOCRATES：Isapropositionresolvableintoanypartsmallerthananame？ HERMOGENES：No；thatisthesmallest。 SOCRATES：Thenthenameisapartofthetrueproposition？ HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Yes，andatruepart，asyousay。 HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Andisnotthepartofafalsehoodalsoafalsehood？ HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Then，ifpropositionsmaybetrueandfalse，namesmaybetrueandfalse？ HERMOGENES：Sowemustinfer。 SOCRATES：Andthenameofanythingisthatwhichanyoneaffirmstobethename？ HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Andwilltherebesomanynamesofeachthingaseverybodysaysthatthereare？andwilltheybetruenamesatthetimeofutteringthem？ HERMOGENES：Yes，Socrates，Icanconceivenocorrectnessofnamesotherthanthis；yougiveonename，andIanother；andindifferentcitiesandcountriestherearedifferentnamesforthesamethings；Hellenesdifferfrombarbariansintheiruseofnames，andtheseveralHellenictribesfromoneanother。 SOCRATES：Butwouldyousay，Hermogenes，thatthethingsdifferasthenamesdiffer？andaretheyrelativetoindividuals，asProtagorastellsus？ Forhesaysthatmanisthemeasureofallthings，andthatthingsaretomeastheyappeartome，andthattheyaretoyouastheyappeartoyou。 Doyouagreewithhim，orwouldyousaythatthingshaveapermanentessenceoftheirown？ HERMOGENES：Therehavebeentimes，Socrates，whenIhavebeendriveninmyperplexitytotakerefugewithProtagoras；notthatIagreewithhimatall。 SOCRATES：What！haveyoueverbeendriventoadmitthattherewasnosuchthingasabadman？ HERMOGENES：No，indeed；butIhaveoftenhadreasontothinkthatthereareverybadmen，andagoodmanyofthem。 SOCRATES：Well，andhaveyoueverfoundanyverygoodones？ HERMOGENES：Notmany。 SOCRATES：Stillyouhavefoundthem？ HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Andwouldyouholdthattheverygoodweretheverywise，andtheveryevilveryfoolish？Wouldthatbeyourview？ HERMOGENES：Itwould。 SOCRATES：ButifProtagorasisright，andthetruthisthatthingsareastheyappeartoanyone，howcansomeofusbewiseandsomeofusfoolish？ HERMOGENES：Impossible。 SOCRATES：Andif，ontheotherhand，wisdomandfollyarereallydistinguishable，youwillallow，Ithink，thattheassertionofProtagorascanhardlybecorrect。Forifwhatappearstoeachmanistruetohim，onemancannotinrealitybewiserthananother。 HERMOGENES：Hecannot。 SOCRATES：NorwillyoubedisposedtosaywithEuthydemus，thatallthingsequallybelongtoallmenatthesamemomentandalways；forneitheronhisviewcantherebesomegoodandothersbad，ifvirtueandvicearealwaysequallytobeattributedtoall。 HERMOGENES：Therecannot。 SOCRATES：Butifneitherisright，andthingsarenotrelativetoindividuals，andallthingsdonotequallybelongtoallatthesamemomentandalways，theymustbesupposedtohavetheirownproperandpermanentessence：theyarenotinrelationtous，orinfluencedbyus，fluctuatingaccordingtoourfancy，buttheyareindependent，andmaintaintotheirownessencetherelationprescribedbynature。 HERMOGENES：Ithink，Socrates，thatyouhavesaidthetruth。 SOCRATES：DoeswhatIamsayingapplyonlytothethingsthemselves，orequallytotheactionswhichproceedfromthem？Arenotactionsalsoaclassofbeing？ HERMOGENES：Yes，theactionsarerealaswellasthethings。 SOCRATES：Thentheactionsalsoaredoneaccordingtotheirpropernature，andnotaccordingtoouropinionofthem？Incutting，forexample，wedonotcutasweplease，andwithanychanceinstrument；butwecutwiththeproperinstrumentonly，andaccordingtothenaturalprocessofcutting； andthenaturalprocessisrightandwillsucceed，butanyotherwillfailandbeofnouseatall。 HERMOGENES：Ishouldsaythatthenaturalwayistherightway。 SOCRATES：Again，inburning，noteverywayistherightway；buttherightwayisthenaturalway，andtherightinstrumentthenaturalinstrument。 HERMOGENES：True。 SOCRATES：Andthisholdsgoodofallactions？ HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Andspeechisakindofaction？ HERMOGENES：True。 SOCRATES：Andwillamanspeakcorrectlywhospeaksashepleases？Willnotthesuccessfulspeakerratherbehewhospeaksinthenaturalwayofspeaking，andasthingsoughttobespoken，andwiththenaturalinstrument？Anyothermodeofspeakingwillresultinerrorandfailure。 HERMOGENES：Iquiteagreewithyou。 SOCRATES：Andisnotnamingapartofspeaking？foringivingnamesmenspeak。 HERMOGENES：Thatistrue。 SOCRATES：Andifspeakingisasortofactionandhasarelationtoacts，isnotnamingalsoasortofaction？ HERMOGENES：True。 SOCRATES：Andwesawthatactionswerenotrelativetoourselves，buthadaspecialnatureoftheirown？ HERMOGENES：Precisely。 SOCRATES：Thentheargumentwouldleadustoinferthatnamesoughttobegivenaccordingtoanaturalprocess，andwithaproperinstrument，andnotatourpleasure：inthisandnootherwayshallwenamewithsuccess。 HERMOGENES：Iagree。 SOCRATES：Butagain，thatwhichhastobecuthastobecutwithsomething？ HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Andthatwhichhastobewovenorpiercedhastobewovenorpiercedwithsomething？ HERMOGENES：Certainly。 SOCRATES：Andthatwhichhastobenamedhastobenamedwithsomething？ HERMOGENES：True。 SOCRATES：Whatisthatwithwhichwepierce？ HERMOGENES：Anawl。 SOCRATES：Andwithwhichweweave？ HERMOGENES：Ashuttle。 SOCRATES：Andwithwhichwename？ HERMOGENES：Aname。 SOCRATES：Verygood：thenanameisaninstrument？ HERMOGENES：Certainly。 SOCRATES：SupposethatIask，’Whatsortofinstrumentisashuttle？’Andyouanswer，’Aweavinginstrument。’ HERMOGENES：Well。 SOCRATES：AndIaskagain，’Whatdowedowhenweweave？’——Theansweris，thatweseparateordisengagethewarpfromthewoof。 HERMOGENES：Verytrue。 SOCRATES：Andmaynotasimilardescriptionbegivenofanawl，andofinstrumentsingeneral？ HERMOGENES：Tobesure。 SOCRATES：AndnowsupposethatIaskasimilarquestionaboutnames：willyouanswerme？Regardingthenameasaninstrument，whatdowedowhenwename？ HERMOGENES：Icannotsay。 SOCRATES：Dowenotgiveinformationtooneanother，anddistinguishthingsaccordingtotheirnatures？ HERMOGENES：Certainlywedo。 SOCRATES：Thenanameisaninstrumentofteachingandofdistinguishingnatures，astheshuttleisofdistinguishingthethreadsoftheweb。 HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Andtheshuttleistheinstrumentoftheweaver？ HERMOGENES：Assuredly。 SOCRATES：Thentheweaverwillusetheshuttlewell——andwellmeanslikeaweaver？andtheteacherwillusethenamewell——andwellmeanslikeateacher？ HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Andwhentheweaverusestheshuttle，whoseworkwillhebeusingwell？ HERMOGENES：Thatofthecarpenter。 SOCRATES：Andiseverymanacarpenter，ortheskilledonly？ HERMOGENES：Onlytheskilled。 SOCRATES：Andwhenthepiercerusestheawl，whoseworkwillhebeusingwell？ HERMOGENES：Thatofthesmith。 SOCRATES：Andiseverymanasmith，oronlytheskilled？ HERMOGENES：Theskilledonly。 SOCRATES：Andwhentheteacherusesthename，whoseworkwillhebeusing？ HERMOGENES：ThereagainIampuzzled。 SOCRATES：Cannotyouatleastsaywhogivesusthenameswhichweuse？ HERMOGENES：IndeedIcannot。 SOCRATES：Doesnotthelawseemtoyoutogiveusthem？ HERMOGENES：Yes，Isupposeso。 SOCRATES：Thentheteacher，whenhegivesusaname，usestheworkofthelegislator？ HERMOGENES：Iagree。 SOCRATES：Andiseverymanalegislator，ortheskilledonly？ HERMOGENES：Theskilledonly。 SOCRATES：Then，Hermogenes，noteverymanisabletogiveaname，butonlyamakerofnames；andthisisthelegislator，whoofallskilledartisansintheworldistherarest。 HERMOGENES：True。 SOCRATES：Andhowdoesthelegislatormakenames？andtowhatdoeshelook？Considerthisinthelightofthepreviousinstances：towhatdoesthecarpenterlookinmakingtheshuttle？Doeshenotlooktothatwhichisnaturallyfittedtoactasashuttle？ HERMOGENES：Certainly。 SOCRATES：Andsupposetheshuttletobebrokeninmaking，willhemakeanother，lookingtothebrokenone？orwillhelooktotheformaccordingtowhichhemadetheother？ HERMOGENES：Tothelatter，Ishouldimagine。 SOCRATES：Mightnotthatbejustlycalledthetrueoridealshuttle？ HERMOGENES：Ithinkso。 SOCRATES：Andwhatevershuttlesarewanted，forthemanufactureofgarments，thinorthick，offlaxen，woollen，orothermaterial，oughtallofthemtohavethetrueformoftheshuttle；andwhateveristheshuttlebestadaptedtoeachkindofwork，thatoughttobetheformwhichthemakerproducesineachcase。 HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Andthesameholdsofotherinstruments：whenamanhasdiscoveredtheinstrumentwhichisnaturallyadaptedtoeachwork，hemustexpressthisnaturalform，andnototherswhichhefancies，inthematerial，whateveritmaybe，whichheemploys；forexample，heoughttoknowhowtoputintoirontheformsofawlsadaptedbynaturetotheirseveraluses？ HERMOGENES：Certainly。 SOCRATES：Andhowtoputintowoodformsofshuttlesadaptedbynaturetotheiruses？ HERMOGENES：True。 SOCRATES：Fortheseveralformsofshuttlesnaturallyanswertotheseveralkindsofwebs；andthisistrueofinstrumentsingeneral。 HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Then，astonames：oughtnotourlegislatoralsotoknowhowtoputthetruenaturalnameofeachthingintosoundsandsyllables，andtomakeandgiveallnameswithaviewtotheidealname，ifheistobeanamerinanytruesense？Andwemustrememberthatdifferentlegislatorswillnotusethesamesyllables。Forneitherdoeseverysmith，althoughhemaybemakingthesameinstrumentforthesamepurpose，makethemallofthesameiron。Theformmustbethesame，butthematerialmayvary，andstilltheinstrumentmaybeequallygoodofwhateverironmade，whetherinHellasorinaforeigncountry；——thereisnodifference。 HERMOGENES：Verytrue。 SOCRATES：Andthelegislator，whetherhebeHelleneorbarbarian，isnotthereforetobedeemedbyyouaworselegislator，providedhegivesthetrueandproperformofthenameinwhateversyllables；thisorthatcountrymakesnomatter。 HERMOGENES：Quitetrue。 SOCRATES：Butwhothenistodeterminewhethertheproperformisgiventotheshuttle，whateversortofwoodmaybeused？thecarpenterwhomakes，ortheweaverwhoistousethem？ HERMOGENES：Ishouldsay，hewhoistousethem，Socrates。 SOCRATES：Andwhousestheworkofthelyre-maker？Willnothebethemanwhoknowshowtodirectwhatisbeingdone，andwhowillknowalsowhethertheworkisbeingwelldoneornot？ HERMOGENES：Certainly。 SOCRATES：Andwhoishe？ HERMOGENES：Theplayerofthelyre。 SOCRATES：Andwhowilldirecttheshipwright？ HERMOGENES：Thepilot。 SOCRATES：Andwhowillbebestabletodirectthelegislatorinhiswork，andwillknowwhethertheworkiswelldone，inthisoranyothercountry？ Willnottheuserbetheman？ HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Andthisishewhoknowshowtoaskquestions？ HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Andhowtoanswerthem？ HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Andhimwhoknowshowtoaskandansweryouwouldcalladialectician？ HERMOGENES：Yes；thatwouldbehisname。 SOCRATES：Thentheworkofthecarpenteristomakearudder，andthepilothastodirecthim，iftherudderistobewellmade。 HERMOGENES：True。 SOCRATES：Andtheworkofthelegislatoristogivenames，andthedialecticianmustbehisdirectorifthenamesaretoberightlygiven？ HERMOGENES：Thatistrue。 SOCRATES：Then，Hermogenes，Ishouldsaythatthisgivingofnamescanbenosuchlightmatterasyoufancy，ortheworkoflightorchancepersons； andCratylusisrightinsayingthatthingshavenamesbynature，andthatnoteverymanisanartificerofnames，butheonlywholookstothenamewhicheachthingbynaturehas，andisabletoexpressthetrueformsofthingsinlettersandsyllables。 HERMOGENES：Icannotansweryou，Socrates；butIfindadifficultyinchangingmyopinionallinamoment，andIthinkthatIshouldbemorereadilypersuaded，ifyouwouldshowmewhatthisiswhichyoutermthenaturalfitnessofnames。 SOCRATES：MygoodHermogenes，Ihavenonetoshow。WasInottellingyoujustnow（butyouhaveforgotten），thatIknewnothing，andproposingtosharetheenquirywithyou？ButnowthatyouandIhavetalkedoverthematter，astephasbeengained；forwehavediscoveredthatnameshavebynatureatruth，andthatnoteverymanknowshowtogiveathinganame。 HERMOGENES：Verygood。 SOCRATES：Andwhatisthenatureofthistruthorcorrectnessofnames？ That，ifyoucaretoknow，isthenextquestion。 HERMOGENES：Certainly，Icaretoknow。 SOCRATES：Thenreflect。 HERMOGENES：HowshallIreflect？ SOCRATES：Thetruewayistohavetheassistanceofthosewhoknow，andyoumustpaythemwellbothinmoneyandinthanks；thesearetheSophists，ofwhomyourbrother，Callias，has——ratherdearly——boughtthereputationofwisdom。Butyouhavenotyetcomeintoyourinheritance，andthereforeyouhadbettergotohim，andbegandentreathimtotellyouwhathehaslearntfromProtagorasaboutthefitnessofnames。 HERMOGENES：ButhowinconsistentshouldIbe，if，whilstrepudiatingProtagorasandhistruth（’Truth’wasthetitleofthebookofProtagoras； compareTheaet。），Iweretoattachanyvaluetowhatheandhisbookaffirm！ SOCRATES：Thenifyoudespisehim，youmustlearnofHomerandthepoets。 HERMOGENES：AndwheredoesHomersayanythingaboutnames，andwhatdoeshesay？ SOCRATES：Heoftenspeaksofthem；notablyandnoblyintheplaceswherehedistinguishesthedifferentnameswhichGodsandmengivetothesamethings。Doeshenotinthesepassagesmakearemarkablestatementaboutthecorrectnessofnames？FortheGodsmustclearlybesupposedtocallthingsbytheirrightandnaturalnames；doyounotthinkso？ HERMOGENES：Why，ofcoursetheycallthemrightly，iftheycallthematall。Buttowhatareyoureferring？ SOCRATES：DoyounotknowwhathesaysabouttheriverinTroywhohadasinglecombatwithHephaestus？ ’Whom，’ashesays，’theGodscallXanthus，andmencallScamander。’ HERMOGENES：Iremember。 SOCRATES：Well，andaboutthisriver——toknowthatheoughttobecalledXanthusandnotScamander——isnotthatasolemnlesson？Oraboutthebirdwhich，ashesays，’TheGodscallChalcis，andmenCymindis：’ tobetaughthowmuchmorecorrectthenameChalcisisthanthenameCymindis——doyoudeemthatalightmatter？OraboutBatieiaandMyrina？ （CompareIl。’ThehillwhichmencallBatieiaandtheimmortalsthetombofthesportiveMyrina。’）AndtherearemanyotherobservationsofthesamekindinHomerandotherpoets。Now，Ithinkthatthisisbeyondtheunderstandingofyouandme；butthenamesofScamandriusandAstyanax，whichheaffirmstohavebeenthenamesofHector’sson，aremorewithintherangeofhumanfaculties，asIamdisposedtothink；andwhatthepoetmeansbycorrectnessmaybemorereadilyapprehendedinthatinstance：youwillrememberIdaresaythelinestowhichIrefer？（Il。） HERMOGENES：Ido。 SOCRATES：Letmeaskyou，then，whichdidHomerthinkthemorecorrectofthenamesgiventoHector’sson——AstyanaxorScamandrius？ HERMOGENES：Idonotknow。 SOCRATES：Howwouldyouanswer，ifyouwereaskedwhetherthewiseortheunwisearemorelikelytogivecorrectnames？ HERMOGENES：Ishouldsaythewise，ofcourse。 SOCRATES：Andarethemenorthewomenofacity，takenasaclass，thewiser？ HERMOGENES：Ishouldsay，themen。 SOCRATES：AndHomer，asyouknow，saysthattheTrojanmencalledhimAstyanax（kingofthecity）；butifthemencalledhimAstyanax，theothernameofScamandriuscouldonlyhavebeengiventohimbythewomen。 HERMOGENES：Thatmaybeinferred。 SOCRATES：AndmustnotHomerhaveimaginedtheTrojanstobewiserthantheirwives？ HERMOGENES：Tobesure。 SOCRATES：ThenhemusthavethoughtAstyanaxtobeamorecorrectnamefortheboythanScamandrius？ HERMOGENES：Clearly。 SOCRATES：Andwhatisthereasonofthis？Letusconsider：——doeshenothimselfsuggestaverygoodreason，whenhesays，’Forhealonedefendedtheircityandlongwalls’？ Thisappearstobeagoodreasonforcallingthesonofthesaviourkingofthecitywhichhisfatherwassaving，asHomerobserves。 HERMOGENES：Isee。 SOCRATES：Why，Hermogenes，Idonotasyetseemyself；anddoyou？ HERMOGENES：No，indeed；notI。 SOCRATES：Buttellme，friend，didnotHomerhimselfalsogiveHectorhisname？ HERMOGENES：Whatofthat？ SOCRATES：ThenameappearstometobeverynearlythesameasthenameofAstyanax——bothareHellenic；andaking（anax）andaholder（ektor）havenearlythesamemeaning，andarebothdescriptiveofaking；foramanisclearlytheholderofthatofwhichheisking；herules，andowns，andholdsit。But，perhaps，youmaythinkthatIamtalkingnonsense；andindeedIbelievethatImyselfdidnotknowwhatImeantwhenIimaginedthatIhadfoundsomeindicationoftheopinionofHomeraboutthecorrectnessofnames。 HERMOGENES：IassureyouthatIthinkotherwise，andIbelieveyoutobeontherighttrack。 SOCRATES：Thereisreason，Ithink，incallingthelion’swhelpalion，andthefoalofahorseahorse；Iamspeakingonlyoftheordinarycourseofnature，whenananimalproducesafterhiskind，andnotofextraordinarybirths；——ifcontrarytonatureahorsehaveacalf，thenIshouldnotcallthatafoalbutacalf；nordoIcallanyinhumanbirthaman，butonlyanaturalbirth。Andthesamemaybesaidoftreesandotherthings。Doyouagreewithme？ HERMOGENES：Yes，Iagree。 SOCRATES：Verygood。ButyouhadbetterwatchmeandseethatIdonotplaytrickswithyou。Foronthesameprinciplethesonofakingistobecalledaking。Andwhetherthesyllablesofthenamearethesameornotthesame，makesnodifference，providedthemeaningisretained；nordoestheadditionorsubtractionofalettermakeanydifferencesolongastheessenceofthethingremainsinpossessionofthenameandappearsinit。 HERMOGENES：Whatdoyoumean？ SOCRATES：Averysimplematter。Imayillustratemymeaningbythenamesofletters，whichyouknowarenotthesameasthelettersthemselveswiththeexceptionofthefourepsilon，upsilon，omicron，omega；thenamesoftherest，whethervowelsorconsonants，aremadeupofotherletterswhichweaddtothem；butsolongasweintroducethemeaning，andtherecanbenomistake，thenameoftheletterisquitecorrect。Take，forexample，theletterbeta——theadditionofeta，tau，alpha，givesnooffence，anddoesnotpreventthewholenamefromhavingthevaluewhichthelegislatorintended——sowelldidheknowhowtogivethelettersnames。 HERMOGENES：Ibelieveyouareright。 SOCRATES：Andmaynotthesamebesaidofaking？akingwilloftenbethesonofaking，thegoodsonorthenoblesonofagoodornoblesire；andsimilarlytheoffspringofeverykind，intheregularcourseofnature，isliketheparent，andthereforehasthesamename。Yetthesyllablesmaybedisguiseduntiltheyappeardifferenttotheignorantperson，andhemaynotrecognizethem，althoughtheyarethesame，justasanyoneofuswouldnotrecognizethesamedrugsunderdifferentdisguisesofcolourandsmell，althoughtothephysician，whoregardsthepowerofthem，theyarethesame，andheisnotputoutbytheaddition；andinlikemannertheetymologistisnotputoutbytheadditionortranspositionorsubtractionofaletterortwo，orindeedbythechangeofalltheletters，forthisneednotinterferewiththemeaning。Aswasjustnowsaid，thenamesofHectorandAstyanaxhaveonlyoneletteralike，whichistau，andyettheyhavethesamemeaning。AndhowlittleincommonwiththelettersoftheirnameshasArchepolis（rulerofthecity）——andyetthemeaningisthesame。 Andtherearemanyothernameswhichjustmean’king。’Again，thereareseveralnamesforageneral，as，forexample，Agis（leader）andPolemarchus（chiefinwar）andEupolemus（goodwarrior）；andotherswhichdenoteaphysician，asIatrocles（famoushealer）andAcesimbrotus（curerofmortals）；andtherearemanyotherswhichmightbecited，differingintheirsyllablesandletters，buthavingthesamemeaning。Wouldyounotsayso？ HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Thesamenames，then，oughttobeassignedtothosewhofollowinthecourseofnature？ HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Andwhatofthosewhofollowoutofthecourseofnature，andareprodigies？forexample，whenagoodandreligiousmanhasanirreligiousson，heoughttobearthenamenotofhisfather，butoftheclasstowhichhebelongs，justasinthecasewhichwasbeforesupposedofahorsefoalingacalf。 HERMOGENES：Quitetrue。 SOCRATES：Thentheirreligioussonofareligiousfathershouldbecalledirreligious？ HERMOGENES：Certainly。 SOCRATES：HeshouldnotbecalledTheophilus（belovedofGod）orMnesitheus（mindfulofGod），oranyofthesenames：ifnamesarecorrectlygiven，hisshouldhaveanoppositemeaning。 HERMOGENES：Certainly，Socrates。 SOCRATES：Again，Hermogenes，thereisOrestes（themanofthemountains） whoappearstoberightlycalled；whetherchancegavethename，orperhapssomepoetwhomeanttoexpressthebrutalityandfiercenessandmountainwildnessofhishero’snature。 HERMOGENES：Thatisverylikely，Socrates。 SOCRATES：Andhisfather’snameisalsoaccordingtonature。 HERMOGENES：Clearly。 SOCRATES：Yes，forashisname，soalsoishisnature；Agamemnon（admirableforremaining）isonewhoispatientandperseveringintheaccomplishmentofhisresolves，andbyhisvirtuecrownsthem；andhiscontinuanceatTroywithallthevastarmyisaproofofthatadmirableenduranceinhimwhichissignifiedbythenameAgamemnon。IalsothinkthatAtreusisrightlycalled；forhismurderofChrysippusandhisexceedingcrueltytoThyestesaredamaginganddestructivetohisreputation——thenameisalittlealteredanddisguisedsoasnottobeintelligibletoeveryone，buttotheetymologistthereisnodifficultyinseeingthemeaning，forwhetheryouthinkofhimasateiresthestubborn，orasatrestosthefearless，orasaterosthedestructiveone，thenameisperfectlycorrectineverypointofview。AndIthinkthatPelopsisalsonamedappropriately；for，asthenameimplies，heisrightlycalledPelopswhoseeswhatisnearonly（otapelasoron）。 HERMOGENES：Howso？ SOCRATES：Because，accordingtothetradition，hehadnoforethoughtorforesightofalltheevilwhichthemurderofMyrtiluswouldentailuponhiswholeraceinremoteages；hesawonlywhatwasathandandimmediate，——orinotherwords，pelas（near），inhiseagernesstowinHippodamiabyallmeansforhisbride。EveryonewouldagreethatthenameofTantalusisrightlygivenandinaccordancewithnature，ifthetraditionsabouthimaretrue。 HERMOGENES：Andwhatarethetraditions？ SOCRATES：Manyterriblemisfortunesaresaidtohavehappenedtohiminhislife——lastofall，cametheutterruinofhiscountry；andafterhisdeathhehadthestonesuspended（talanteia）overhisheadintheworldbelow——allthisagreeswonderfullywellwithhisname。YoumightimaginethatsomepersonwhowantedtocallhimTalantatos（themostweighteddownbymisfortune），disguisedthenamebyalteringitintoTantalus；andintothisform，bysomeaccidentoftradition，ithasactuallybeentransmuted。 ThenameofZeus，whoishisallegedfather，hasalsoanexcellentmeaning，althoughhardtobeunderstood，becausereallylikeasentence，whichisdividedintotwoparts，forsomecallhimZena，andusetheonehalf，andotherswhousetheotherhalfcallhimDia；thetwotogethersignifythenatureoftheGod，andthebusinessofaname，asweweresaying，istoexpressthenature。Forthereisnonewhoismoretheauthoroflifetousandtoall，thanthelordandkingofall。WhereforewearerightincallinghimZenaandDia，whichareonename，althoughdivided，meaningtheGodthroughwhomallcreaturesalwayshavelife（dionzenaeipasitoiszosinuparchei）。Thereisanirreverence，atfirstsight，incallinghimsonofCronos（whoisaproverbforstupidity），andwemightratherexpectZeustobethechildofamightyintellect。Whichisthefact；forthisisthemeaningofhisfather’sname：KronosquasiKoros（Choreo，tosweep），notinthesenseofayouth，butsignifyingtochatharonchaiacheratontounou，thepureandgarnishedmind（sc。apotouchorein）。He，asweareinformedbytradition，wasbegottenofUranus，rightlysocalled（apotouorantaano）fromlookingupwards；which，asphilosopherstellus，isthewaytohaveapuremind，andthenameUranusisthereforecorrect。IfI couldrememberthegenealogyofHesiod，IwouldhavegoneonandtriedmoreconclusionsofthesamesortontheremoterancestorsoftheGods，——thenI mighthaveseenwhetherthiswisdom，whichhascometomeallinaninstant，Iknownotwhence，willorwillnotholdgoodtotheend。 HERMOGENES：Youseemtome，Socrates，tobequitelikeaprophetnewlyinspired，andtobeutteringoracles。 SOCRATES：Yes，Hermogenes，andIbelievethatIcaughttheinspirationfromthegreatEuthyphrooftheProspaltiandeme，whogavemealonglecturewhichcommencedatdawn：hetalkedandIlistened，andhiswisdomandenchantingravishmenthasnotonlyfilledmyearsbuttakenpossessionofmysoul，andto-dayIshalllethissuperhumanpowerworkandfinishtheinvestigationofnames——thatwillbetheway；butto-morrow，ifyouaresodisposed，wewillconjurehimaway，andmakeapurgationofhim，ifwecanonlyfindsomepriestorsophistwhoisskilledinpurificationsofthissort。 HERMOGENES：Withallmyheart；foramverycurioustoheartherestoftheenquiryaboutnames。 SOCRATES：Thenletusproceed；andwherewouldyouhaveusbegin，nowthatwehavegotasortofoutlineoftheenquiry？Arethereanynameswhichwitnessofthemselvesthattheyarenotgivenarbitrarily，buthaveanaturalfitness？Thenamesofheroesandofmeningeneralareapttobedeceptivebecausetheyareoftencalledafterancestorswithwhosenames，asweweresaying，theymayhavenobusiness；ortheyaretheexpressionofawishlikeEutychides（thesonofgoodfortune），orSosias（theSaviour），orTheophilus（thebelovedofGod），andothers。ButIthinkthatwehadbetterleavethese，fortherewillbemorechanceoffindingcorrectnessinthenamesofimmutableessences；——thereoughttohavebeenmorecaretakenaboutthemwhentheywerenamed，andperhapstheremayhavebeensomemorethanhumanpoweratworkoccasionallyingivingthemnames。 HERMOGENES：Ithinkso，Socrates。 SOCRATES：OughtwenottobeginwiththeconsiderationoftheGods，andshowthattheyarerightlynamedGods？ HERMOGENES：Yes，thatwillbewell。 SOCRATES：Mynotionwouldbesomethingofthissort：——Isuspectthatthesun，moon，earth，stars，andheaven，whicharestilltheGodsofmanybarbarians，weretheonlyGodsknowntotheaboriginalHellenes。Seeingthattheywerealwaysmovingandrunning，fromtheirrunningnaturetheywerecalledGodsorrunners（Theous，Theontas）；andwhenmenbecameacquaintedwiththeotherGods，theyproceededtoapplythesamenametothemall。Doyouthinkthatlikely？ HERMOGENES：Ithinkitverylikelyindeed。 SOCRATES：WhatshallfollowtheGods？ HERMOGENES：Mustnotdemonsandheroesandmencomenext？ SOCRATES：Demons！Andwhatdoyouconsidertobethemeaningofthisword？Tellmeifmyviewisright。 HERMOGENES：Letmehear。 SOCRATES：YouknowhowHesiodusestheword？ HERMOGENES：Idonot。 SOCRATES：Doyounotrememberthathespeaksofagoldenraceofmenwhocamefirst？ HERMOGENES：Yes，Ido。 SOCRATES：Hesaysofthem—— ’ButnowthatfatehasclosedoverthisraceTheyareholydemonsupontheearth，Beneficent，avertersofills，guardiansofmortalmen。’（Hesiod，WorksandDays。） HERMOGENES：Whatistheinference？ SOCRATES：Whatistheinference！Why，Isupposethathemeansbythegoldenmen，notmenliterallymadeofgold，butgoodandnoble；andIamconvincedofthis，becausehefurthersaysthatwearetheironrace。 HERMOGENES：Thatistrue。 SOCRATES：Anddoyounotsupposethatgoodmenofourowndaywouldbyhimbesaidtobeofgoldenrace？ HERMOGENES：Verylikely。 SOCRATES：Andarenotthegoodwise？ HERMOGENES：Yes，theyarewise。 SOCRATES：AndthereforeIhavethemostentireconvictionthathecalledthemdemons，becausetheyweredaemones（knowingorwise），andinourolderAtticdialecttheworditselfoccurs。Nowheandotherpoetssaytruly，thatwhenagoodmandieshehashonourandamightyportionamongthedead，andbecomesademon；whichisanamegiventohimsignifyingwisdom。 AndIsaytoo，thateverywisemanwhohappenstobeagoodmanismorethanhuman（daimonion）bothinlifeanddeath，andisrightlycalledademon。 HERMOGENES：ThenIratherthinkthatIamofonemindwithyou；butwhatisthemeaningoftheword’hero’？（Eroswithaneta，intheoldwritingeroswithanepsilon。） SOCRATES：Ithinkthatthereisnodifficultyinexplaining，forthenameisnotmuchaltered，andsignifiesthattheywerebornoflove。 HERMOGENES：Whatdoyoumean？ SOCRATES：Doyounotknowthattheheroesaredemigods？ HERMOGENES：Whatthen？ SOCRATES：AllofthemsprangeitherfromtheloveofaGodforamortalwoman，orofamortalmanforaGoddess；thinkofthewordintheoldAttic，andyouwillseebetterthatthenameherosisonlyaslightalterationofEros，fromwhomtheheroessprang：eitherthisisthemeaning，or，ifnotthis，thentheymusthavebeenskilfulasrhetoriciansanddialecticians，andabletoputthequestion（erotan），foreireinisequivalenttolegein。Andtherefore，asIwassaying，intheAtticdialecttheheroesturnouttoberhetoriciansandquestioners。Allthisiseasyenough；thenoblebreedofheroesareatribeofsophistsandrhetors。Butcanyoutellmewhymenarecalledanthropoi？——thatismoredifficult。 HERMOGENES：No，Icannot；andIwouldnottryevenifIcould，becauseI thinkthatyouarethemorelikelytosucceed。 SOCRATES：Thatistosay，youtrusttotheinspirationofEuthyphro。 HERMOGENES：Ofcourse。 SOCRATES：Yourfaithisnotvain；foratthisverymomentanewandingeniousthoughtstrikesme，and，ifIamnotcareful，beforeto-morrow’sdawnIshallbewiserthanIoughttobe。Now，attendtome；andfirst，rememberthatweoftenputinandpulloutlettersinwords，andgivenamesaswepleaseandchangetheaccents。Take，forexample，thewordDiiPhilos；inordertoconvertthisfromasentenceintoanoun，weomitoneoftheiotasandsoundthemiddlesyllablegraveinsteadofacute；as，ontheotherhand，lettersaresometimesinsertedinwordsinsteadofbeingomitted，andtheacutetakestheplaceofthegrave。 HERMOGENES：Thatistrue。 SOCRATES：Thenameanthropos，whichwasonceasentence，andisnowanoun，appearstobeacasejustofthissort，foroneletter，whichisthealpha，hasbeenomitted，andtheacuteonthelastsyllablehasbeenchangedtoagrave。 HERMOGENES：Whatdoyoumean？ SOCRATES：Imeantosaythattheword’man’impliesthatotheranimalsneverexamine，orconsider，orlookupatwhattheysee，butthatmannotonlysees（opope）butconsidersandlooksupatthatwhichhesees，andhencehealoneofallanimalsisrightlyanthropos，meaninganathronaopopen。 HERMOGENES：MayIaskyoutoexamineanotherwordaboutwhichIamcurious？ SOCRATES：Certainly。 HERMOGENES：Iwilltakethatwhichappearstometofollownextinorder。 Youknowthedistinctionofsoulandbody？ SOCRATES：Ofcourse。 HERMOGENES：Letusendeavourtoanalyzethemlikethepreviouswords。 SOCRATES：Youwantmefirstofalltoexaminethenaturalfitnessofthewordpsuche（soul），andthenofthewordsoma（body）？ HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：IfIamtosaywhatoccurstomeatthemoment，Ishouldimaginethatthosewhofirstusedthenamepsuchemeanttoexpressthatthesoulwheninthebodyisthesourceoflife，andgivesthepowerofbreathandrevival（anapsuchon），andwhenthisrevivingpowerfailsthenthebodyperishesanddies，andthis，ifIamnotmistaken，theycalledpsyche。Butpleasestayamoment；IfancythatIcandiscoversomethingwhichwillbemoreacceptabletothedisciplesofEuthyphro，forIamafraidthattheywillscornthisexplanation。Whatdoyousaytoanother？ HERMOGENES：Letmehear。 SOCRATES：Whatisthatwhichholdsandcarriesandgiveslifeandmotiontotheentirenatureofthebody？Whatelsebutthesoul？ HERMOGENES：Justthat。 SOCRATES：AnddoyounotbelievewithAnaxagoras，thatmindorsoulistheorderingandcontainingprincipleofallthings？ HERMOGENES：Yes；Ido。 SOCRATES：Thenyoumaywellcallthatpowerphusechewhichcarriesandholdsnature（ephusinokei，kaiekei），andthismayberefinedawayintopsuche。 HERMOGENES：Certainly；andthisderivationis，Ithink，morescientificthantheother。 SOCRATES：Itisso；butIcannothelplaughing，ifIamtosupposethatthiswasthetruemeaningofthename。 HERMOGENES：Butwhatshallwesayofthenextword？ SOCRATES：Youmeansoma（thebody）。 HERMOGENES：Yes。 SOCRATES：Thatmaybevariouslyinterpreted；andyetmorevariouslyifalittlepermutationisallowed。Forsomesaythatthebodyisthegrave（sema）ofthesoulwhichmaybethoughttobeburiedinourpresentlife； oragaintheindexofthesoul，becausethesoulgivesindicationsto（semainei）thebody；probablytheOrphicpoetsweretheinventorsofthename，andtheywereundertheimpressionthatthesoulissufferingthepunishmentofsin，andthatthebodyisanenclosureorprisoninwhichthesoulisincarcerated，keptsafe（soma，sozetai），asthenamesomaimplies，untilthepenaltyispaid；accordingtothisview，notevenaletterofthewordneedbechanged。 HERMOGENES：Ithink，Socrates，thatwehavesaidenoughofthisclassofwords。ButhaveweanymoreexplanationsofthenamesoftheGods，likethatwhichyouweregivingofZeus？Ishouldliketoknowwhetheranysimilarprincipleofcorrectnessistobeappliedtothem。 SOCRATES：Yes，indeed，Hermogenes；andthereisoneexcellentprinciplewhich，asmenofsense，wemustacknowledge，——thatoftheGodsweknownothing，eitheroftheirnaturesorofthenameswhichtheygivethemselves；butwearesurethatthenamesbywhichtheycallthemselves，whatevertheymaybe，aretrue。Andthisisthebestofallprinciples； andthenextbestistosay，asinprayers，thatwewillcallthembyanysortorkindofnamesorpatronymicswhichtheylike，becausewedonotknowofanyother。Thatalso，Ithink，isaverygoodcustom，andonewhichIshouldmuchwishtoobserve。Letus，then，ifyouplease，inthefirstplaceannouncetothemthatwearenotenquiringaboutthem；wedonotpresumethatweareabletodoso；butweareenquiringaboutthemeaningofmeningivingthemthesenames，——inthistherecanbesmallblame。 HERMOGENES：Ithink，Socrates，thatyouarequiteright，andIwouldliketodoasyousay。 SOCRATES：Shallwebegin，then，withHestia，accordingtocustom？ HERMOGENES：Yes，thatwillbeveryproper。 SOCRATES：WhatmaywesupposehimtohavemeantwhogavethenameHestia？ HERMOGENES：Thatisanotherandcertainlyamostdifficultquestion。 SOCRATES：MydearHermogenes，thefirstimposersofnamesmustsurelyhavebeenconsiderablepersons；theywerephilosophers，andhadagooddealtosay。 HERMOGENES：Well，andwhatofthem？ SOCRATES：TheyarethementowhomIshouldattributetheimpositionofnames。Eveninforeignnames，ifyouanalyzethem，ameaningisstilldiscernible。Forexample，thatwhichwetermousiaisbysomecalledesia，andbyothersagainosia。Nowthattheessenceofthingsshouldbecalledestia，whichisakintothefirstofthese（esia=estia），isrationalenough。AndthereisreasonintheAthenianscallingthatestiawhichparticipatesinousia。Forinancienttimeswetooseemtohavesaidesiaforousia，andthisyoumaynotetohavebeentheideaofthosewhoappointedthatsacrificesshouldbefirstofferedtoestia，whichwasnaturalenoughiftheymeantthatestiawastheessenceofthings。ThoseagainwhoreadosiaseemtohaveinclinedtotheopinionofHeracleitus，thatallthingsflowandnothingstands；withthemthepushingprinciple（othoun）isthecauseandrulingpowerofallthings，andisthereforerightlycalledosia。Enoughofthis，whichisallthatwewhoknownothingcanaffirm。NextinorderafterHestiaweoughttoconsiderRheaandCronos，althoughthenameofCronoshasbeenalreadydiscussed。ButIdaresaythatIamtalkinggreatnonsense。