第6章

ADEIMANTUS Nonsense，hereplied。Butletmeaddsomethingmore：ThereisanothersidetoGlaucon’sargumentaboutthepraiseandcensureofjusticeandinjustice，whichisequallyrequiredinordertobringoutwhatIbelievetobehismeaning。Parentsandtutorsarealwaystellingtheirsonsandtheirwardsthattheyaretobejust；butwhy？notforthesakeofjustice，butforthesakeofcharacterandreputation；inthehopeofobtainingforhimwhoisreputedjustsomeofthoseoffices，marriages，andthelikewhichGlauconhasenumeratedamongtheadvantagesaccruingtotheunjustfromthereputationofjustice。More，however，ismadeofappearancesbythisclassofpersonsthanbytheothers；fortheythrowinthegoodopinionofthegods，andwilltellyouofashowerofbenefitswhichtheheavens，astheysay，rainuponthepious；andthisaccordswiththetestimonyofthenobleHesiodandHomer，thefirstofwhomsays，thatthegodsmaketheoaksofthejust—— Tohearacornsattheirsummit，andbeesIthemiddle； Andthesheeptheboweddownbowedthewiththetheirfleeces。 andmanyotherblessingsofalikekindareprovidedforthem。AndHomerhasaverysimilarstrain；forhespeaksofonewhosefameis—— Asthefameofsomeblamelesskingwho，likeagod，MaintainsjusticetowhomtheblackearthbringsforthWheatandbarley，whosetreesarebowedwithfruit，Andhissheepneverfailtobear，andtheseagiveshimfish。 StillgranderarethegiftsofheavenwhichMusaeusandhissonvouchsafetothejust；theytakethemdownintotheworldbelow，wheretheyhavethesaintslyingoncouchesatafeast，everlastinglydrunk，crownedwithgarlands；theirideaseemstobethatanimmortalityofdrunkennessisthehighestmeedofvirtue。Someextendtheirrewardsyetfurther；theposterity，astheysay，ofthefaithfulandjustshallsurvivetothethirdandfourthgeneration。Thisisthestyleinwhichtheypraisejustice。Butaboutthewickedthereisanotherstrain；theyburytheminasloughinHades，andmakethemcarrywaterinasieve；alsowhiletheyareyetlivingtheybringthemtoinfamy，andinflictuponthemthepunishmentswhichGlaucondescribedastheportionofthejustwhoarereputedtobeunjust； nothingelsedoestheirinventionsupply。Suchistheirmannerofpraisingtheoneandcensuringtheother。 Oncemore，Socrates，Iwillaskyoutoconsideranotherwayofspeakingaboutjusticeandinjustice，whichisnotconfinedtothepoets，butisfoundinprosewriters。Theuniversalvoiceofmankindisalwaysdeclaringthatjusticeandvirtuearehonourable，butgrievousandtoilsome；andthatthepleasuresofviceandinjusticeareeasyofattainment，andareonlycensuredbylawandopinion。Theysayalsothathonestyisforthemostpartlessprofitablethandishonesty；andtheyarequitereadytocallwickedmenhappy，andtohonourthembothinpublicandprivatewhentheyarerichorinanyotherwayinfluential，whiletheydespiseandoverlookthosewhomaybeweakandpoor，eventhoughacknowledgingthemtobebetterthantheothers。Butmostextraordinaryofallistheirmodeofspeakingaboutvirtueandthegods：theysaythatthegodsapportioncalamityandmiserytomanygoodmen，andgoodandhappinesstothewicked。Andmendicantprophetsgotorichmen’sdoorsandpersuadethemthattheyhaveapowercommittedtothembythegodsofmakinganatonementforaman’sownorhisancestor’ssinsbysacrificesorcharms，withrejoicingsandfeasts；andtheypromisetoharmanenemy，whetherjustorunjust，atasmallcost；withmagicartsandincantationsbindingheaven，astheysay，toexecutetheirwill。Andthepoetsaretheauthoritiestowhomtheyappeal，nowsmoothingthepathofvicewiththewordsofHesiod；—— Vicemaybehadinabundancewithouttrouble；thewayissmoothandherdwelling—placeisnear。Butbeforevirtuethegodshavesettoil，andatediousanduphillroad：thencitingHomerasawitnessthatthegodsmaybeinfluencedbymen；forhealsosays： Thegods，too，mayheturnedfromtheirpurpose；andmenpraytothemandaverttheirwrathbysacrificesandsoothingentreaties，andbylibationsandtheodouroffat，whentheyhavesinnedandtransgressed。 AndtheyproduceahostofbookswrittenbyMusaeusandOrpheus，whowerechildrenoftheMoonandtheMuses——thatiswhattheysay——accordingtowhichtheyperformtheirritual，andpersuadenotonlyindividuals，butwholecities，thatexpiationsandatonementsforsinmaybemadebysacrificesandamusementswhichfillavacanthour，andareequallyattheserviceofthelivingandthedead；thelattersorttheycallmysteries，andtheyredeemusfromthepainsofhell，butifweneglectthemnooneknowswhatawaitsus。 Heproceeded：Andnowwhentheyounghearallthissaidaboutvirtueandvice，andthewayinwhichgodsandmenregardthem，howaretheirmindslikelytobeaffected，mydearSocrates，——thoseofthem，I mean，whoarequickwitted，and，likebeesonthewing，lightoneveryflower，andfromallthattheyheararepronetodrawconclusionsastowhatmannerofpersonstheyshouldbeandinwhatwaytheyshouldwalkiftheywouldmakethebestoflife？ProbablytheyouthwillsaytohimselfinthewordsofPindar—— CanIbyjusticeorbycrookedwaysofdeceitascendaloftiertowerwhichmayheafortresstomeallmydays？ Forwhatmensayisthat，ifIamreallyjustandamnotalsothoughtjustprofitthereisnone，butthepainandlossontheotherhandareunmistakable。Butif，thoughunjust，Iacquirethereputationofjustice，aheavenlylifeispromisedtome。Sincethen，asphilosophersprove，appearancetyrannizesovertruthandislordofhappiness，toappearanceImustdevotemyself。Iwilldescribearoundmeapictureandshadowofvirtuetobethevestibuleandexteriorofmyhouse；behindIwilltrailthesubtleandcraftyfox，asArchilochus，greatestofsages，recommends。ButIhearsomeoneexclaimingthattheconcealmentofwickednessisoftendifficult；towhichIanswer，Nothinggreatiseasy。Nevertheless，theargumentindicatesthis，ifwewouldbehappy，tobethepathalongwhichweshouldproceed。Withaviewtoconcealmentwewillestablishsecretbrotherhoodsandpoliticalclubs。Andthereareprofessorsofrhetoricwhoteachtheartofpersuadingcourtsandassemblies；andso，partlybypersuasionandpartlybyforce，Ishallmakeunlawfulgainsandnotbepunished。StillIhearavoicesayingthatthegodscannotbedeceived，neithercantheybecompelled。Butwhatiftherearenogods？or，supposethemtohavenocareofhumanthings——whyineithercaseshouldwemindaboutconcealment？Andeveniftherearegods，andtheydocareaboutus，yetweknowofthemonlyfromtraditionandthegenealogiesofthepoets；andthesearetheverypersonswhosaythattheymaybeinfluencedandturnedby’sacrificesandsoothingentreatiesandbyofferings。’Letusbeconsistentthen，andbelievebothorneither。Ifthepoetsspeaktruly，whythenwehadbetterbeunjust，andofferofthefruitsofinjustice；forifwearejust，althoughwemayescapethevengeanceofheaven，weshalllosethegainsofinjustice；but，ifweareunjust，weshallkeepthegains，andbyoursinningandpraying，andprayingandsinning，thegodswillbepropitiated，andweshallnotbepunished。’Butthereisaworldbelowinwhicheitherweorourposteritywillsufferforourunjustdeeds。’Yes，myfriend，willbethereflection，buttherearemysteriesandatoningdeities，andthesehavegreatpower。Thatiswhatmightycitiesdeclare；andthechildrenofthegods，whoweretheirpoetsandprophets，bearaliketestimony。 Onwhatprinciple，then，shallweanylongerchoosejusticeratherthantheworstinjustice？when，ifweonlyunitethelatterwithadeceitfulregardtoappearances，weshallfaretoourmindbothwithgodsandmen，inlifeandafterdeath，asthemostnumerousandthehighestauthoritiestellus。Knowingallthis，Socrates，howcanamanwhohasanysuperiorityofmindorpersonorrankorwealth，bewillingtohonourjustice；orindeedtorefrainfromlaughingwhenhehearsjusticepraised？Andevenifthereshouldbesomeonewhoisabletodisprovethetruthofmywords，andwhoissatisfiedthatjusticeisbest，stillheisnotangrywiththeunjust，butisveryreadytoforgivethem，becausehealsoknowsthatmenarenotjustoftheirownfreewill；unless，peradventure，therebesomeonewhomthedivinitywithinhimmayhaveinspiredwithahatredofinjustice，orwhohasattainedknowledgeofthetruth——butnootherman。Heonlyblamesinjusticewho，owingtocowardiceorageorsomeweakness，hasnotthepowerofbeingunjust。Andthisisprovedbythefactthatwhenheobtainsthepower，heimmediatelybecomesunjustasfarashecanbe。 Thecauseofallthis，Socrates，wasindicatedbyusatthebeginningoftheargument，whenmybrotherandItoldyouhowastonishedweweretofindthatofalltheprofessingpanegyristsofjustice——beginningwiththeancientheroesofwhomanymemorialhasbeenpreservedtous，andendingwiththemenofourowntime——noonehaseverblamedinjusticeorpraisedjusticeexceptwithaviewtotheglories，honours，andbenefitswhichflowfromthem。Noonehaseveradequatelydescribedeitherinverseorprosethetrueessentialnatureofeitherofthemabidinginthesoul，andinvisibletoanyhumanordivineeye；orshownthatofallthethingsofaman’ssoulwhichhehaswithinhim，justiceisthegreatestgood，andinjusticethegreatestevil。Hadthisbeentheuniversalstrain，hadyousoughttopersuadeusofthisfromouryouthupwards，weshouldnothavebeenonthewatchtokeeponeanotherfromdoingwrong，buteveryonewouldhavebeenhisownwatchman，becauseafraid，ifhedidwrong，ofharbouringinhimselfthegreatestofevils。IdaresaythatThrasymachusandotherswouldseriouslyholdthelanguagewhichIhavebeenmerelyrepeating，andwordsevenstrongerthantheseaboutjusticeandinjustice，grossly，asIconceive，pervertingtheirtruenature。ButIspeakinthisvehementmanner，asImustfranklyconfesstoyou，becauseIwanttohearfromyoutheoppositeside；andIwouldaskyoutoshownotonlythesuperioritywhichjusticehasoverinjustice，butwhateffecttheyhaveonthepossessorofthemwhichmakestheonetobeagoodandtheotheraneviltohim。Andplease，asGlauconrequestedofyou，toexcludereputations；forunlessyoutakeawayfromeachofthemhistruereputationandaddonthefalse，weshallsaythatyoudonotpraisejustice，buttheappearanceofit；weshallthinkthatyouareonlyexhortingustokeepinjusticedark，andthatyoureallyagreewithThrasymachusinthinkingthatjusticeisanother’sgoodandtheinterestofthestronger，andthatinjusticeisaman’sownprofitandinterest，thoughinjurioustotheweaker。Nowasyouhaveadmittedthatjusticeisoneofthathighestclassofgoodswhicharedesiredindeedfortheirresults，butinafargreaterdegreefortheirownsakes——likesightorhearingorknowledgeorhealth，oranyotherrealandnaturalandnotmerelyconventionalgood——Iwouldaskyouinyourpraiseofjusticetoregardonepointonly：Imeantheessentialgoodandevilwhichjusticeandinjusticeworkinthepossessorsofthem。Letotherspraisejusticeandcensureinjustice，magnifyingtherewardsandhonoursoftheoneandabusingtheother；thatisamannerofarguingwhich，comingfromthem，Iamreadytotolerate，butfromyouwhohavespentyourwholelifeintheconsiderationofthisquestion，unlessIhearthecontraryfromyourownlips，Iexpectsomethingbetter。Andtherefore，Isay，notonlyprovetousthatjusticeisbetterthaninjustice，butshowwhattheyeitherofthemdotothepossessorofthem，whichmakestheonetobeagoodandtheotheranevil，whetherseenorunseenbygodsandmen。 SOCRATES—ADEIMANTUS IhadalwaysadmiredthegeniusofGlauconandAdeimantus，butonhearingthesewordsIwasquitedelighted，andsaid：Sonsofanillustriousfather，thatwasnotabadbeginningoftheElegiacverseswhichtheadmirerofGlauconmadeinhonourofyouafteryouhaddistinguishedyourselvesatthebattleofMegara：—— ’SonsofAriston，’hesang，’divineoffspringofanillustrioushero。’ Theepithetisveryappropriate，forthereissomethingtrulydivineinbeingabletoargueasyouhavedoneforthesuperiorityofinjustice，andremainingunconvincedbyyourownarguments。AndIdobelievethatyouarenotconvinced——thisIinferfromyourgeneralcharacter，forhadIjudgedonlyfromyourspeechesIshouldhavemistrustedyou。Butnow，thegreatermyconfidenceinyou，thegreaterismydifficultyinknowingwhattosay。ForIaminastraitbetweentwo；ontheonehandIfeelthatIamunequaltothetask；andmyinabilityisbroughthometomebythefactthatyouwerenotsatisfiedwiththeanswerwhichImadetoThrasymachus，proving，asIthought，thesuperioritywhichjusticehasoverinjustice。AndyetI cannotrefusetohelp，whilebreathandspeechremaintome；Iamafraidthattherewouldbeanimpietyinbeingpresentwhenjusticeisevilspokenofandnotliftingupahandinherdefence。AndthereforeIhadbestgivesuchhelpasIcan。 Glauconandtherestentreatedmebyallmeansnottoletthequestiondrop，buttoproceedintheinvestigation。Theywantedtoarriveatthetruth，first，aboutthenatureofjusticeandinjustice，andsecondly，abouttheirrelativeadvantages。Itoldthem，whatI ——reallythought，thattheenquirywouldbeofaseriousnature，andwouldrequireverygoodeyes。Seeingthen，Isaid，thatwearenogreatwits，IthinkthatwehadbetteradoptamethodwhichImayillustratethus；supposethatashort—sightedpersonhadbeenaskedbysomeonetoreadsmalllettersfromadistance；anditoccurredtosomeoneelsethattheymightbefoundinanotherplacewhichwaslargerandinwhichtheletterswerelarger——iftheywerethesameandhecouldreadthelargerlettersfirst，andthenproceedtothelesser——thiswouldhavebeenthoughtararepieceofgoodfortune。 Verytrue，saidAdeimantus；buthowdoestheillustrationapplytoourenquiry？ Iwilltellyou，Ireplied；justice，whichisthesubjectofourenquiry，is，asyouknow，sometimesspokenofasthevirtueofanindividual，andsometimesasthevirtueofaState。 True，hereplied。 AndisnotaStatelargerthananindividual？ Itis。 Theninthelargerthequantityofjusticeislikelytobelargerandmoreeasilydiscernible。Iproposethereforethatweenquireintothenatureofjusticeandinjustice，firstastheyappearintheState，andsecondlyintheindividual，proceedingfromthegreatertothelesserandcomparingthem。 That，hesaid，isanexcellentproposal。 AndifweimaginetheStateinprocessofcreation，weshallseethejusticeandinjusticeoftheStateinprocessofcreationalso。 Idaresay。 WhentheStateiscompletedtheremaybeahopethattheobjectofoursearchwillbemoreeasilydiscovered。 Yes，farmoreeasily。 Butoughtwetoattempttoconstructone？Isaid；fortodoso，asI aminclinedtothink，willbeaveryserioustask。Reflecttherefore。 Ihavereflected，saidAdeimantus，andamanxiousthatyoushouldproceed。 AState，Isaid，arises，asIconceive，outoftheneedsofmankind； nooneisself—sufficing，butallofushavemanywants。CananyotheroriginofaStatebeimagined？ TherecanIbenoother。 Then，aswehavemanywants，andmanypersonsareneededtosupplythem，onetakesahelperforonepurposeandanotherforanother； andwhenthesepartnersandhelpersaregatheredtogetherinonehabitationthebodyofinhabitantsistermedaState。 True，hesaid。 Andtheyexchangewithoneanother，andonegives，andanotherreceives，undertheideathattheexchangewillbefortheirgood。 Verytrue。 Then，Isaid，letusbeginandcreateinideaaState；andyetthetruecreatorisnecessity，whoisthemotherofourinvention。 Ofcourse，hereplied。 Nowthefirstandgreatestofnecessitiesisfood，whichistheconditionoflifeandexistence。 Certainly。 Thesecondisadwelling，andthethirdclothingandthelike。 True。 Andnowletusseehowourcitywillbeabletosupplythisgreatdemand：Wemaysupposethatonemanisahusbandman，anotherabuilder，someoneelseaweaver——shallweaddtothemashoemaker，orperhapssomeotherpurveyortoourbodilywants？ Quiteright。 ThebarestnotionofaStatemustincludefourorfivemen。 Clearly。 Andhowwilltheyproceed？Willeachbringtheresultofhislaboursintoacommonstock？——theindividualhusbandman，forexample，producingforfour，andlabouringfourtimesaslongandasmuchasheneedintheprovisionoffoodwithwhichhesuppliesothersaswellashimself；orwillhehavenothingtodowithothersandnotbeatthetroubleofproducingforthem，butprovideforhimselfaloneafourthofthefoodinafourthofthetime，andintheremainingthree—fourthsofhistimebeemployedinmakingahouseoracoatorapairofshoes，havingnopartnershipwithothers，butsupplyinghimselfallhisownwants？ Adeimantusthoughtthatheshouldaimatproducingfoodonlyandnotatproducingeverything。 Probably，Ireplied，thatwouldbethebetterway；andwhenIhearyousaythis，Iammyselfremindedthatwearenotallalike；therearediversitiesofnaturesamonguswhichareadaptedtodifferentoccupations。 Verytrue。 Andwillyouhaveaworkbetterdonewhentheworkmanhasmanyoccupations，orwhenhehasonlyone？ Whenhehasonlyone。 Further，therecanbenodoubtthataworkisspoiltwhennotdoneattherighttime？ Nodoubt。 Forbusinessisnotdisposedtowaituntilthedoerofthebusinessisatleisure；butthedoermustfollowupwhatheisdoing，andmakethebusinesshisfirstobject。 Hemust。 Andifso，wemustinferthatallthingsareproducedmoreplentifullyandeasilyandofabetterqualitywhenonemandoesonethingwhichisnaturaltohimanddoesitattherighttime，andleavesotherthings。 Undoubtedly…… Thenmorethanfourcitizenswillberequired；forthehusbandmanwillnotmakehisownploughormattock，orotherimplementsofagriculture，iftheyaretobegoodforanything。Neitherwillthebuildermakehistools——andhetooneedsmany；andinlikemannertheweaverandshoemaker。 True。 Thencarpenters，andsmiths，andmanyotherartisans，willbesharersinourlittleState，whichisalreadybeginningtogrow？ True。 Yetevenifweaddneatherds，shepherds，andotherherdsmen，inorderthatourhusbandmenmayhaveoxentoploughwith，andbuildersaswellashusbandmenmayhavedraughtcattle，andcurriersandweaversfleecesandhides，——stillourStatewillnotbeverylarge。 Thatistrue；yetneitherwillitbeaverysmallStatewhichcontainsallthese。 Then，again，thereisthesituationofthecity——tofindaplacewherenothingneedbeimportediswell—nighimpossible。 Impossible。 Thentheremustbeanotherclassofcitizenswhowillbringtherequiredsupplyfromanothercity？ Theremust。 Butifthetradergoesempty—handed，havingnothingwhichtheyrequirewhowouldsupplyhisneed，hewillcomebackempty—handed。 Thatiscertain。 Andthereforewhattheyproduceathomemustbenotonlyenoughforthemselves，butsuchbothinquantityandqualityastoaccommodatethosefromwhomtheirwantsaresupplied。 Verytrue。 Thenmorehusbandmenandmoreartisanswillberequired？ Theywill。 Nottomentiontheimportersandexporters，whoarecalledmerchants？ Yes。 Thenweshallwantmerchants？ Weshall。 Andifmerchandiseistobecarriedoverthesea，skilfulsailorswillalsobeneeded，andinconsiderablenumbers？ Yes，inconsiderablenumbers。 Then，again，withinthecity，howwilltheyexchangetheirproductions？Tosecuresuchanexchangewas，asyouwillremember，oneofourprincipalobjectswhenweformedthemintoasocietyandconstitutedaState。 Clearlytheywillbuyandsell。 Thentheywillneedamarket—place，andamoney—tokenforpurposesofexchange。 Certainly。 Supposenowthatahusbandman，oranartisan，bringssomeproductiontomarket，andhecomesatatimewhenthereisnoonetoexchangewithhim，——ishetoleavehiscallingandsitidleinthemarket—place？ Notatall；hewillfindpeopletherewho，seeingthewant，undertaketheofficeofsalesmen。Inwell—orderedStatestheyarecommonlythosewhoaretheweakestinbodilystrength，andthereforeoflittleuseforanyotherpurpose；theirdutyistobeinthemarket，andtogivemoneyinexchangeforgoodstothosewhodesiretosellandtotakemoneyfromthosewhodesiretobuy。 Thiswant，then，createsaclassofretail—tradersinourState。 Isnot’retailer’thetermwhichisappliedtothosewhositinthemarket—placeengagedinbuyingandselling，whilethosewhowanderfromonecitytoanotherarecalledmerchants？ Yes，hesaid。